Evolution of Agricultural Economy ( Sociology Optional)

It evolves from subsisting on hunting and gathering, to fishing, swiddening or shifting agriculture, pastoralism, horticulture, and finally to setteled agriculture.

Classification

The tribal economies can be classified into two broad types:

Food-collection economy:

  • Food-gathering economy
  • Hunting-fishing economy

Food-production economy:

  • Swiddening
  • Pastoral economy
  • Horticultural economy
  • Agricultural economy

Food-collection economy

  • Food-collection economy is defined as that economy based on all forms of subsistence technology in which food getting is dependent upon naturally occurring resources in the environmente., wild plants and animals.
  • It includes two sub-type- food-gathering economy and hunting-fishing economy.
  • Food-gathering economy is based on the subsistence technology of gathering edible fruits and vegetables that grow wild and hunting of the animals, a group of primitive people are known as hunters and gatherers.
  • Hunting-fishing economy is based on the subsistence technology of hunting as well as fishing. The tribal societies with a hunting-fishing economy obtain fruits and vegetables by foraging. They supplement their diet by hunting.

Food-production economy

  • Food-production economy is an economy that is based on the subsistence technology of domestication of plants and animals. It reveals how the tribal societies domesticate food sources and acquire control over certain natural processes such as animal breeding and plant seeding.
  • It includes three sub-types of economy- pastoral economy, horticultural economy, and agricultural economy.
  • Pastoral economy is based on the subsistence technology of domesticating the animals such as cattle, buffaloes, camels, horses, reindeer, and llamas.
  • Horticultural economy is based on the subsistence technology of cultivating the gardens by using a hoe or digging sticks.
  • Agricultural economy is based on subsistence technology of cultivation by using a plow. It is also called an economy based on plow cultivation.

Evolutionary Sequence of Economies

Introduction

  • Food gathering is the oldest mode of human existence. The hundred thousand years of the Paleolithic, not until the Neolithic some eight to ten thousand years ago did any human society develop food production. As gatherers, humans have evolved, dispersed over much of the inhabited world, and laid the broad foundations for human culture.

Evolution of Economies

  • Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest humans depended primarily on vegetable foods, supplementing this diet with eggs, insects, and such small game as might be captured without weapons.
  • Beginning about 10,000 years ago certain people, began to cultivate and then domesticate plants and animals.
  • The transition from food-gathering to food production brought a major change in the relationship between humans and their natural resources.
  • For the first time, humans were able to augment the productivity of their environment and gain some degree of control over their food supply.

Food Collection Economy

  • Food collection combined with gathering and hunting is the oldest type of human subsistence and economy.
  • Human societies evolved and developed other economies.
  • In this economic development from the early food-collection stages, however, the course followed by different human societies was by no means uniform. Some societies evolved into the stage of horticulturists, but some other societies evolved into the stage of pastoralism and then evolved into the stage of agriculture.
  • However, some societies evolved into the stage of pastoralism, then into the stages of horticulture and agriculture.
  • The exception regarding which stage that each human society had experienced before it finally reached the stage of agriculture, all human societies had first food-collecting economy and then acquired a food-producing economy.

Characteristics of Tribal Economy

Production without Technological aids:

  • The tribals being illiterate and isolated, from the civilized world. They generally carry out their production without technological aids. The result of production is very low.

Mixing Economic Activities with Religion:

  • The tribals live in such a type of an environment where there is always a dependence on nature to the utmost degree. Their religion is generally naturalistic and hence they tend to amalgamate their economic activities with religious beliefs.
  • For example, Naga sprinkles blood to increase the productivity of the land and performs sacrifices before harvest.

Production for Consumption:

  • There is a lake of technology in agriculture; the productivity of crops does not fulfill their consumption need. `

Non-Monetary Economy:

  • Usually barter and other types of exchanges prevail without using money as a means of production.

Non-Market Economy:

  • There is no market situation. Moreover, there is no monopoly, and the market cannot exist without the business and competitive spirits.

Non-Profit Oriented Economy:

  • A tribal economy is a non-profit-oriented economy. It is a means of widening the social relations and not terminating the latter by formal profit-oriented relationships.

Communal Economic Activities:

  • The activities are cooperative and there is a constant interdependence between various activities.

Absence of Specialists:

  • There is no complex division of labor, but it is purely based on sex, age, and at times rank. This lack of division of labor leads to a lack of specialization in the tribal society.

Concept of Property:

  • Personal property is recognized in almost all tribal societies to some extent. Group properties are decided by them. The group properties usually are the forests, water resources, etc.

Economic Backwardness:

  • The concept of economic backwardness is not absolute but is relative. The tribes are very primitive in their economic organization. Though they are at a subsistent level, even today they are unable to control the means of production.

3.4.1 Food Gathering Economy

Introduction

  • Hunter-gatherer culture is a type of subsistence lifestyle that relies on hunting and fishing animals and foraging for wild vegetation and other nutrients like honey, for food.
  • Food-gathering economy is based on the subsistence technology of gathering edible fruits and vegetables that grow wild and hunting of the animals, a group of primitive people are known as hunters and gatherers.
  • Today, the tribal societies with a food-gathering economy include only 250,000 people in a world population of about 3.4 billion.
  • Food-gatherers form about 0.003 per cent of world population and live in the world's marginal areas namely frozen arctic tundra, deserts, and dense tropical forests.

Thinkers’ Perspective

  • Durkheim’s book the elementary form of religious life in which relies heavily on what was then known about hunter-gatherers to develop a general sociological theory of religion.
  • He was wrong, for instance, to think of Australian hunter-gatherers as featuring a particularly simple religion or society for that matter.
  • As per Turner, Hunter-gatherer ways of practicing religion are reminiscent of sub-strands in other religious traditions.
  • According to Widlok, Hunter-gatherer ways of organizing access to shared resources may inspire changes in urban or digital settings.

Examples

  • In Africa, the pygmies and the Pygmoid tribes, the Bachwa along the equator, some of the Bushmen tribes are food-gatherers.
  • In Asia we find food-gathering tribal societies widely scattered over India, Malaya, and the adjoining Islands. In India, food-gathering tribes are found mainly in the South and in Andaman Islands. The Paliyan, Iruka, Panyan, Yanadi, Kurumba and Chenchu in South India and the Onge, Jarawa and Sentinelese in Andaman Islands are food-gatherers.
  • The Semang and Sakai of Malaya and the Ainu of Japan, the Veddas of Ceylon, and the Pygmies of Philippines are food-gatherers.
  • In Australia, the south-eastern tribes such as the Kariera, the Kulin and the Murngin and western tribe of Ngatatjara living on the edge of the Gibson Desert and the central tribe of Arunta are food-gatherers.
  • In South America, the Ona of Tierra Del Fuego, the Siriono of Bolivia, and many other tribes are food-gatherers.
  • The Shoshone, the Miwok, the Ojjibwa, the Washo and the Winnebago Red Indians of United States and the Central Eskimo of Canada are the food-gathering tribes in North America.

Characteristics

  • Food-gathering economy is characterized by nomadism and semi-nomadism.
  • It has the characteristic of supporting the lowest population density.
  • It is characterized by small size self-sufficient local groups.
  • It is characterized by simple economic resources namely technology, division of labor, land ownership and capital.
  • Food-gathering economy is characterized by simplest technology. Digging stick and collection basket are used for collecting food from the forest. Several types of containers such as bags, nets and baskets are also used for collecting seeds, nuts, or fruits.
  • For hunting, the use of bow and arrows and spears is common. In some tribes of Africa, United States and Canada, the use of spear-thrower and missiles is also in evidence. In Australia a throwing stick known as boomerang is used in hunting.
    • Boomerang is of two types: the returnable one which hits the target and returns to the tribal hunter and the non-returnable one which hits the target and stops there itself without returning to the tribal hunter.
    • Several tribal hunting societies in America use war clubs. The commonest methods of hunting are those of beat and chase.
  • Division of labor runs on simple lines. Full-time craft specialization is absent. In fact, there is no individual, group or regional specialization.
  • The main division of labor is between the sexes. In many societies men engage themselves in hunting. Women often go in parties to do most of the gathering.
  • Land Ownership is practiced according to specific rules. Hunters and gatherers determine who can hunt and gather. Among the Bushmen of the Kalahari, for example, camps are located near water holes. The traditional area exploited by a local group is measured by one day's round trip walk in all directions.
  • The Capital in food-gathering societies is very limited. The Hunters and gatherers share tools in exchange for the products of their use.
  • When hunting parties are organized, they call for considerable resourcefulness, concerted action, and some specialization for successfully bagging sufficient game to satisfy the needs of the group.
  • Food-gathering economy is often characterized by plenty of food and rarely characterized by food shortage. The Wild fruits, roots, tubers, leaves, plants, herbs, mushrooms, and honey are all eagerly sought by them.
  • Tribes have their special techniques and processes for preserving wild foods and meat derived from game for short intervals.
  • It is characterized by absence of surplus and trade. The food-gathering tribes have 'forest to mouth' A few societies like the Veddas of Ceylon practice silent trade, dumb barter, or covert exchange.
  • It favors informal political leadership. The general tone of the socio-political organization of the tribe’s dependent on food-gathering economy is almost always democratic.

3.4.2 Hunting-Fishing Economy

Introduction

  • Historically, the hunting-fishing economy is probably the second oldest type of economy. The hunting-fishing as the main source of livelihood came into existence only 11,000 years ago.
  • It is limited to only those tribal societies which are located near the seacoast, lake areas, and riverine environments. For these societies, fish, rather than land animals, are the objects of the chase. Tribal societies depending on the hunting and fishing are simply specialized hunting and gathering societies but adapted to aquatic environments rater then terrestrial environments.
  • At present hunting-fishing economy can be found distributed in the North-Western part of North America namely Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, Alaska and the arctic regions of Canada. They also occur in isolated parts in northern Asia, among the Pacific Islands in Polynesia and Micronesia, in scattered parts of Africa and South America.

Thinkers’ Perspective

  • As per Gordon and Scott, the basic theory of fisheries economics, which stipulates that fishing cost in open-access fisheries, assumed to be proportional to fishing effort, will continue to increase even though revenues per unit of effort are declining, and that ultimately revenues will decline until they equal costs.

Examples

  • The tribes living in the North-Pacific Coast of North America extending from northern California to Western Alaska are depending upon hunting-fishing economy. Some of the tribes of this region are the Blackfoot, Lbellacoola, Haida, Kwakiutl, Nootka and Tlingit Red Indians, the Braffinland Eskimos and Alaskan Eskimos.
  • In lowland South America there are some Red Indian tribes living close to rivers and obtaining much of their protein from available fish resources. The Alaculuf, the Chono and the Yahgan or Yaghen Red Indians living on the coastline of Chile are also hunters and fishers.
  • In Africa the tribes living in Dahomey, Ivory Coast and several scattered places among the west coast are dependent upon hunting-fishing economy.
  • The inhabitants of the Pacific Islands in Polynesia and Micronesia grow a range of crops and raise pigs, yet they depend on fish as their protein source, particularly on the smaller coral atolls. The reefs also protect the lagoons from the high seas, and fishing within them is safe.

Characteristics

  • Hunting-fishing economy is characterized by sedentary life. The fishing societies often live in permanent settlements because fishing usually provides a more plentiful and stable food supply than hunting and gathering.
  • These systems can support higher population density.
  • These systems are characterized by large self-sufficient local groups. Among the North-West Coast Indians each local group of village contains 1500 to 2000 people.
  • These systems are characterized by elaborate economic resources. g., technology, division of labor, land ownership and capital.
    • The Eskimos have canoes, kayas, igloos, dogsleds, harpoons, spear throwers and some nets for hunting as well as fishing.
    • The Red Indians living in North America use canoes, harpoons, spears, nets, hooks, and traps.
  • Division of labor is based on age, sex, and specialization. Often the fishing activities are performed by men. Women often go for gathering vegetable products, turtle eggs, crabs and some marine animals washed ashore. Men and women work together in processing, curing, and storing the fish.
  • Hunting-fishing is often characterized by plenty of food and protein.
  • These systems are characterized by surplus production and trade. Fish are easily stored when dried or smoked. Intensive exploitation of the sea, the river, the lake, or any other large body of water readily produces a surplus beyond what a given worker or his family can consume. This surplus becomes available for trade.
  • It favors formal political leadership. More pronounced formal political leadership exists in the fishing societies of the North-West Coast of North America. In these societies the fishing economy presents three distinct features of socio-political organization.
    • First, the organization of the work-parties is not democratic; it is under a leader.
    • Second, the distribution is not equal; the leader gets a major share and chief gets tributes.
    • Third, these politico-economic inequalities have built up a hierarchy of formal leaders for maintaining the village and tribal solidarity.

3.4.3 Swiddening

Introduction

  • Shifting cultivation is a way of discontinuous cropping in which periods of fallowing are typically longer than periods of cropping. Shifting cultivation typically has a way of clearing the fields, generally termed as 'swiddens' using slash-and-burn techniques.
  • In Eastern Europe and Northern Russia, the main swidden crops were turnips, barley, flax, rye, wheat, oats, radishes and millet. Cropping periods were usually one year but were extended to two or three years on very favorable soils.

Thinkers Findings

  • Anthropologist administrators like John Henry Hutton and James Philip Mills attempt to bring ‘civilization’ and ‘improvement’ in the lives of foraging swidden cultivators. According to him, the change in food habits and choice of crops cultivated in eastern Nagaland. This is achieved through a systematic state-driven incentive to grow wet terrace rice that is linked to strategies of electoral politics that have altered the community’s relationship with the development state in the frontier.
  • The swidden cultivators hybridized through inter-plantation of terraced plots, orchards, timber farms, and agroforestry programs that have significantly changed land-use patterns and have entrenched the presence of the state in the everyday life of Nagas through subsidies, seed supplies for farmer’s test pilots
  • Climate change, deforestation, and forest degradation triggered by slash-and-burn farming practices have greatly impacted the carbon sink globally and attracted much concern from international communities.

Examples

  • A swathe of swidden cleared in the moist deciduous tropical forests for kumri cultivation in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, planted with millets, predominantly Eleusine coracana.
  • The Simlipal Hills area of northern Orissa planted with Sorghum bicolor and interplanted with pulses and other crops.
  • Swiddening agriculture is often used by tropical-forest root-crop farmers in various parts of the world, for animal grazing in South and Central America, and by dry-rice cultivators in the forested hill country of Southeast Asia.

Characteristics

  • Uses forest’s natural cycle of regeneration.
  • Organic farming doesn’t use pesticides or chemical fertilizers. Trees burned to provide potash to the soil
  • Cooperation: after swiddening, the land distributed among farmers.
  • Swiddening causes only temporary loss of jungle. Because once monsoon over, the farmers abandon the land. Jungle regenerates quickly.
  • The cycle normally runs for around 6-10 years. i.e., when farmers return to the same patch of land and burn forest again.
  • During those 6-10 years, same jungle provides forest produce to the tribals.
  • Contrary to that, monoculture plantation causes permanent loss of forest, due to chemical inputs.
  • So once, you cut down a forest to raise monoculture plantation, you cannot reconvert the same land into natural forest again.
  • Cultivation done in steep hill slopes were sedentary cultivation not possible. So, it’s a reflex to physiographical characters of the Northeast.
  • Overall, swiddening economically productive and ecologically sustainable.

Demerits of Swiddening

  • Leads to deforestation.
  • Loss of fertility of a particular land.
  • Leads to Soil erosion.
  • Burning of trees causes air pollution.
  • Insufficient cultivation of crops for a large population.

3.4.4 Pastoral Economy

Introduction

  • Pastoralism is a mode of subsistence that involves raising domestic animals in grassland environments using herd and household mobility. Combined with nomadism, pastoralism has allowed humans to inhabit the world's vast dry lands.
  • Historically, Pastoral economy came into existence at about the same time when horticultural and agricultural economies came into existence in the world.
  • Geographically, nomadic pastoralism is most prevalent in the drylands of Western India (Thar Desert) and on the Deccan Plateau, as well as in the mountainous regions of North India (Himalayas).

Thinkers’ Perspective

  • The Raika Dromedary Breeders of Rajasthan said, the nomads who follow pastoralism are being crisis due to several climatic changes in this region.
  • Anthra, an analytical study of a community-based approach to sheep development implemented by India Development Service in partnership with semi-migratory pastoral shepherds of Dharwad district, Karnataka.
  • IVES, J.D. and MESSERELI, B, in The Himalayan Dilemma- Reconciling Development and Conservation, as per him the Himalayan pastoral has geographically and climatic diverse region to follow pastoralism.

Examples

  • The pastoral economy of some of the European Arctic and the Lapps of Finland and the Chuckchee of Russian Siberia is based on reindeer herding.
  • The Kazak, Kirghiz, and Basseri in Central Asia is based on the herding of horses, camels, cattle, sheep, and goats, that of Tibetans is based on Yak, sheep, cattle, and horses, that of Kalmuk Mangols in Mongolia is based on horses and cattle' and that of the Todas in India is based on buffalo herds.
  • The African tribes like the Nuer, Dinka, Masai, Heroro and the Barabaig is based on Zebu-types of cattle keeping besides raising the sheep, goats, and donkeys.
  • The pastoral economy of Navajo in United States is based on domestication of sheep and horses introduced by Spaniards.
  • There are about 5 million pastoralists in Siberia and Central Asia, 2 million pastoralists in South West Asia and North Africa, more than 10 million pastoralists in eastern and southern Africa and 2 million pastoralists in the rest of the world.

Characteristics

  • The pastoral economy is characterized by nomadism, semi-nomadism, or sedentariness. They are seasonally nomadic moving with their herds over large territories searching for better grazing grounds. They move over fixed routes, living mostly in tents as in Central Asia, Arctic Europe, Mongolia, Siberia, and Tibet.
  • It has the characteristic of supporting a low population density.
  • Hunting is an important secondary source of food.
  • It includes moderate economic resources-
    • Technology includes several tools, utensils, and containers besides numerous techniques of stock-raising.
    • Plates, buckets, milking stools, bags, sacks, pouches of skins, saddles, made of skin and leather, and calabashes. Wooden and metal bells, leather straps, horn decorative substances, and leather belts meant for cattle are also used.
    • Land ownership is governed by specific rules to determine who have rights to watering places and grazing lands.
  • Division of labor is based on age, sex, and specialization. Men herd the animals, milk them, sometimes tap blood from them and do numerous other activities. Women attend to the preparation of curds, butter, cheese, and yogurt.
  • It is characterized by plenty of food and frequent food shortages. Pastoralists are often partially dependent on the plant foods grown by their agricultural neighbors. For example, The Tibetans plant no crops, but they purchase barley, dried fruit, and tea from settled people.
  • Collection of wild produce is done by women. However, some pastoralists, in several parts of Africa, grow plant foods of their own. Besides they supplement pastoral activity with hunting and gathering.
  • It is characterized by some surplus and trade.
    • In the form of meat and dairy products, wool, hides, ropes, some woolen blankets, bags, carpets, rugs and ropes, pastoral economy yields only a limited surplus of food supply.
    • Pastoralists generate a modest surplus, so that they can pay for the goods they require from the market such as cereals, millets, weapons, riding gear, containers, and clothing.
    • The pastoralists create surplus of cheese, live animals, hair, wool, skins and meat.
    • In fact, a large proportion of their food may come from trade with agricultural groups.

3.4.5 Horticulture Economy

Introduction

  • Horticulture is the art of cultivating plants in gardens to produce food and medicinal ingredients, or for comfort and ornamental purposes. Horticulturists are agriculturistswho grow flowers, fruits and nuts, vegetables, and herbs, as well as ornamental trees and lawns.
  • The study and practice of horticulture have been traced back thousands of years. It is divided into several categories which focus on the cultivation and processing of different types of plants and food items for specific purposes.
  • Horticultural crops play a unique role in the Indian economy by improving the income of the farmers. Cultivation of these crops is labor intensive, and lot of employment is generated for the rural people. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.

Thinkers’ Perspective

  • H. Marigowda is considered the Father of Indian Horticulture and L.H. Bailey is considered the Father of American Horticulture. Both horticulturists believe that the horticulture is such type of farming by which the agricultural economy of the state will improve significantly.

Examples

  • The Hopi and the Zuni Red Indians in North America, the Apinaye, the Tarahumara, the Camayura, the Ynamanao and the Jivaro Red Indians in South America are depending upon horticultural economy.
  • The Azande, the Bemba, the Kpsigis, the Chagga, the Ganda, the Hehe, the Tiv, the Tallensi, the Youruba, the Yako, the Nyakyusa, the Kpelle and several other tribal societies in Africa.
  • The Sobanum and lfugao in Phillippines, the Muria Gond, Rengma Naga, Ao Naga Abor and many other tribes in India.
  • The Kurtachi, the Kiwal the Wogeo, the Arapesh, the Trobrianders and many other tribes of Pacific Islands.

Characteristics

  • Horticultural economy is characterized by more sedentarism.
  • It has the characteristic of supporting low to moderate population density.
  • It is characterized by small to moderate size self-sufficient local groups.
  • It is characterized by simple to moderate economic resources. Technology includes simple hand tools and simple methods of farming.
  • Division of labor is based on age, sex, and some specialization.
  • It is characterized by plenty of food and infrequent food shortages.
  • It favors some part-time political leadership.

3.4.6 Agricultural Economy

Introduction

  • Agricultural economics, study of the allocation, distribution, and utilization of the resources used, along with the commoditiesproduced, by farming. Agricultural economics plays a role in the economics of development, for a continuous level of farm surplus is one of the wellsprings of technological and commercial growth.
  • Almost Eight thousand years ago, there were many important advances in farming. Scores of new plants were brought under cultivation.
  • The principles of irrigation, fertilizing and weeding were discovered. In fact, agriculture is called plough cultivation as against horticulture. Cultivation with animal drawn plough exists in North Africa, Europe and Asia including Indonesia.

Thinkers’ Perspective

  • Henry Charles Taylor, “father of agricultural economics”. He establishes the Department of Agricultural Economics at the University of Wisconsinin 1909.
  • According to Theodore Schultz, to examine the development of economicsas a problem related directly to the agriculture. He explains and predicts the nature of the firm, company, or corporation, including its existence, behavior, structure, and relationship to the market.

Examples

  • Some of the tribal societies which practice agriculture are the Baiga, the Bhil, the Bhuiya, the Ho, the Lepcha, the Oraons, the Purum and the Santals in India, the Dusu of Indonesia, the Tanala of Madagascar, the Kachim of Burma and the sixteenth century Aztecs of Meso-America.

Characteristics

  • The agricultural economy is characterized by sedentarism, and sedentary communities because they have an attachment to lands used for continuous cultivation for generations.
  • It has the characteristic of supporting the highest population density.
  • It is characterized by permanent rural and urban
  • It has complex economic resources like agricultural equipment, division of labor, land ownership, and capital.
  • The agricultural equipment consists of animal drawn ploughs, harness, levelers, Knives, spades, sickles and others. Agricultural operations include preparation of the soil, sowing, caring for the crops and harvesting. Irrigation and weeding comprise essential parts of caring the crops.
  • Division of labor based on age, sex and a high degree specialization exists in all tribal societies dependent on agricultural economy. Women in agricultural societies contribute less to subsistence then do women in horticultural societies.
  • Land ownership includes a set of complex rules relating to allocation of land resources. In many societies individual ownership of land is rare, and all individuals have complex rights of access to land. Ownership by lineage, clan or even a phratry is common in all such societies.
  • Capital includes money, draught animals, ploughs, levelers, spades, manures and other artifacts and materials.
  • Agricultural societies cultivate rice, millet, pulses, peanuts, root, and tuberous crops. They rely on their own cultivation for a considerable part of their food supplies.
  • These societies are more likely to face food shortages because agriculture is more vulnerable to severe drought which can destroy the entire food-supply-chain and tread among the countries.
  • It is characterized by presence of wide individual differences in wealth. Agricultural success provides for economic inequalities.
  • It favors the existence of many full-time political officials.