Ageing ( Sociology Optional)

Ageing is a series of transition from one set of social roles to another which is structured by the social system rather than mere biological one. Gerontology, the study of the aging process, is devoted to the understanding and control of all factors contributing to the finitude of individual life.
The age categories - infancy: childhood, adolescence, adulthood, middle age, and old age are the inexorable stages of Human life which are determined by both biological as well as socio-economic

Definition

The WHO defines those aged 60 -74 years as elderly. In 1980 the UN recommended 60 years as the age of transition for the elderly segment of the population, and has been categorized as follows:

Young Old- between the ages of 60-75 years.
Old-Old- between the ages of 75-85 years.
Very Old- 85 years and above

Thinker’s views

According to Lawrence Cohen, “since the 1970s, gerontological writing in India has been dominated by a powerful and seldom challenged narrative of the decline of the Indian joint family and the consequent emergence of old age as a time of difficulty, prior to industrialization.
The cultural heritage of Indian society was given the leadership roles and powerful positions of decision – makers and advisors in the joint family and community to aged persons as their knowledge and experience were considered to be of great value in the proper functioning of society.
According to Mishra the technological breakthrough due to industrialization, westernization and urbanization has neglected the ascribed statuses by weakening the unity and integrity of the joint family and caste group that leads to the negligence of the role and status of the elderly persons.
According to Ambedkar the issue relating to old age is a result of the conflict between the traditionalism of the old individuals and the uncritical eagerness of youths towards the Western values.
In fact, there has been a diminishing value of the aged population in contemporary Indian society, as a result, it articulates to the emergence of ageism, which believes in inequality of prejudice and discrimination against aged.

Dimension of aging

The concept of 'ageing denotes three dimensions: biological, psychological and, social. However, the technological developments due to industrialization, westernization, and urbanization - under the purview of distorted form of modernity-have neglected these statuses by weakening the unity and integrity of the joint family , and caste group.
The multifarious dimensions of ageing, in India can sociologically be thought to be a series of transition from one set of social, roles to another, and such roles are structured by the social system.
According to Bhatia, "age and ageing are equally related to role-taking, value orientations and modes of behaviour of a person the expectation of which varies at different age-stages of members of a society".
The dimensions of aging encompass at least three different aspects. The first incorporates prediction of survival or mortality. In other words, we want to be able to relate a process, aging, to an outcome, longevity. The second attempts to relate an aging process to the ability to function. So-called healthy aging derives from this approach. Finally, the need to evaluate potential therapies or interventions to extend this health span is yet another dimension.

Sociological Perspectives on Aging

Ageing, as devised by Wright Mills is not an individual problem rather a widespread issue that is faced by both the developed and underdeveloped nations as a whole.
The process of ageing can be approached from four distinct perspectives: functional, symbolic, conflict, and emancipation.
First, the physical ageing refers to the internal and external physiological changes that take place in the individual body.
Second, the psychological ageing is understood as the development changes in mental functioning - emotional and cognitive capacities.
Third, the social ageing focuses on the changes such as how individuals are viewed, what individuals expect of themselves, and what is expected of them from others that individuals 'experience over the various age categories."

Functional perspective

The functional perspective argues that the elderly persons having knowledge, wisdom and experience help in the continuation of social norms, values and traditions. Hence, negligence of aged individuals needs to be rectified, according to the social situations.
For example, the case of National Agricultural Technology Project aims at mobilization and organization of different. farmers or women farmers' groups at grassroots levels in order to develop and disseminate various agro-based technologies to the farmers'/women farmers' interest groups.
It has been observed that although the youths participate in a large number, the aged persons, however, occupy the advisory-cum-central positions at grassroots, block and district levels.
The reason is that the youths consider the aged members as more experienced and efficient than them in the concerned field.

Conflict perspective

The conflict perspective assumes that the ageing is problematic for the society.
According to this perspective, if individuals become aged it leads to the diminishing of power, prestige and privileges, unless these have been maintained by himself or herself.
It argues that the wealthy and powerful individuals have blocked efforts to help the aged because they think spending for aged does not serve their personal interest.
Moreover, it points out that the aged individuals, in course of time, lose their memory power and physical strength; thus, their role should be minimized.

Symbolic perspective

Thirdly, the symbolic perspective examines the symbols and definitions that people use to communicate with one another, symbols that provide people with their view of the world.According to this perspective, all individuals with their features and characteristics, which are the reflections of their age become the symbol of their respective age groups for others.Generally, the youths are considered to be smart, courageous and sportive. On the other hand, as Henslin (1990) mentioned that old persons are seen as weak, indolent, calm etc.

Emancipation perspective

Fourthly, the emancipation perspective is an alternative to above three perspectives for two reasons. First, it abandons the approaches, proposed by the above theoretical perspectives it gives priority to the liberation of the aged from the exclusion of social, economic and political participation in the society. In fact, the emancipation perspective is defined as creation of a sense of social identity of aged in one extreme, and, as an instigate to social, economic, political welfare of the aged individuals on the other extreme.

Theoretical perspective on Aging

The major theoretical perspective of ageing are disengagement theory, modernization theory, labelling theory, activity theory and subculture theory (Baum and Baum 1980 and Crandall 1980).

Disengagement theory

The disengagement theory of aged, proposed by Cumming and Henry, proclaims that the - aged individuals must be disposed of from their respective roles in order for the proper functioning of the society.
According to the proponents of this theory, disengagement is a gradual and an inevitable
Moreover, this theory confines the area of operation of the aged by restricting their scope for employment and commitments.

Modernization theory

Modernization theory of aged, propounded by Cowgill and Holmes, portrays a sense of abandonment of the role of the elderly in the modern society.
Cowgill and Holmes advocate that modern societies have a less use of older persons than that in the pre-modern societies. But, I think modern societies have failed to give due recognition to the elderly. According to them, the more you become older, the more you experience a sense of relative deprivation.
In the words of Baum and Baum, as promulgated by Cowgill and Holmes, "modern societies abandon their older people economically, socially, and culturally more so than did pre-industrial social orders". Thus, this theory can be attributed to the conflict perspective.

The labelling theory

The labelling theory of aged, proposed by Bengtson, advocates to elucidate the actions of the elderly individuals in the society. The basic tenets of this theory are based on the assumption that when an individual is given a label of old, this label creates a significant impact on the way he/she is being treated and perceived by the society.
In fact, this theory demonstrates a similar nature of symbolic perspective. As labelled individuals, the aged individuals are used to associate to new identities, positions and roles.
Once labelled, it is difficult for him/her to change the label because as of his/her actions are interpreted in light of the new identity,positions and roles. The action that does not confirm to the label will be abandoned and the action that confirms the new identity/positions/roles will be accentuated.

Activity theory

Activity theory of aged was developed by Havighurst, Neugarten and Tobin' (1958). According to Maddox, this theory is regarded as an anti-ageing perspective.
It believes that if the roles and activities associated to old age are lost, it is important to develop new set of roles and activities in order to replace the existing ones and it empowers the degree of life satisfaction at the old age. In fact, the activity theory can best be attributed to the perspective of emancipation.

Theory of subculture

Arnold Rose has developed the theory of subculture of the aged, which defines and delineates the environment for the elderly by determining its own organizations and objectives.
There are three antecedents, which are responsible for the emergence of subculture of aged.
These are a high density of aged population, exclusion-of aged from participation in societal activities, for example due to the case of retirement laws and health tactors and a sense of 'age consciousness'.
This theory comes under the purview of emancipation perspective.

Ageing in India: Some Key Issues

India is a country with an ancient culture and a holy tradition where elderly enjoyed a respectable place in the society.
Old age and wisdom were considered synonymous in the traditional agrarian Indian culture.
Joint families with common land holdings were abundant in rural areas. Elder care was never a problem.
But in the last five to six decades the fast pace of modernization that has been taking place has seriously affected the status that the elderly enjoyed hitherto.
The UN Vienna declaration in 1982, the founding of the Association of Gerontology, India (1982), and the Geriatric Society of India (1979), gave an impetus to the development of ageing research in India.
As a follow up of the National Policy for Older Persons released by the government of India, the leaching and training in geriatrics and gerontology is being implemented in a phased manner.

Major problem of elderly in India

Lack of physical infrastructure forms the major deterrent to providing comfort to the aged.
very little information and knowledge that exists about specific geriatric diseases.
little public or private financial support for the elderly
Lack of Emergency Response Infrastructure
Rapid Socio-Economic Change: more nuclear families, increasing dual career families etc.
Lack of Companionship

Elderly in the Family

The family and kinship bonds, which offered social security for the care of the old have gradually weakened over-the past decades under the pressures of industrialization, urbanization, modernization, and value change in traditional agrarian Indian culture, elders were revered and respected in the society' and old age was not a problem.
There were strong social supports and observances with regard to elder care.
The elderly not only participated in religious and social activities but also their counsel was highly valued in familial and community matters.
Their power and status in the family were reinforced by their rights over the finances and property.
The growing tendencies towards urbanization and modernization led to the nucleation of the families and promoted individualism and commercialization of the value patterns among younger generations.
Many elderly parents in rural areas had to stay back in their places with fewer people to care for them. Increase of dual career families is another striking feature of modern tunes.
Due to work responsibility outside the home, women, who are the traditional caregivers, may not be able to extend adequate care to the elderly at home.
Dak reported that with advancing age, most elders lose their family headship role and as a result there is a corresponding decline in their status and power in the family. This is true of both elderly women and men. Also, the strong bonds and mutual help that were the hallmarks of traditional joint family pave dwindled.
In most Indian families it is considered as the duty of the son to look after aged parents, Migration of children in search of occupational opportunities have put them away from thein aged parents.
Post-parenting families are also present in India. These are families of husbands and wives living by themselves either due to the death of their children or unwilling aged parents resisting living with their adult children. In general, the post-parental and uni-member households are increasing. There are also cases where the elders prefer to live with their daughters.

Changing Patterns of Kinship Relations

The scope for intergenerational interactions and expression of affection was high in the traditional joint family. The changing family pattern is reducing the chances for such interactions and is promoting an individualistic orientation and commercialized transactions among the younger generations. This sort of generation gap contributes significantly to the increased feelings of alienation and loneliness among the elderly.
In the Indian context, an important kinship interaction is between mothers-in-law and daughter-in-law. The prejudice and stigmatized interceptions between them significantly affect the quality of interpersonal interaction and care. This relationship partly depends upon how the mother-in-law treats the daughter-in-law when she joins the family and the following years. If the mother-in-law is less authoritarian, considerate and understanding towards the daughter-in-law and appreciates her service, then the relationship between them and the quality of care given by the daughter-in-law is comparatively better than what it would have been otherwise. Added to this is the increasing participation of women in the labour force, which-reduces the time and effort available on the part of the daughter-in-law in caring for her aged in-laws. The studies on the status of the elderly among tribal families indicate that the aged are comparatively 'more secure and kinship ties are strong in these families.
Comparing the views of the younger generation in 1984 and 1994, it was found that less number of younger people in 1994 viewed caregiving as the duty of sons. Compared to 1984, in 1994 larger proportions of the young. the middle aged and the elderly, considered. Old Age Homes as alternative options for the care of the elderly and particularly the disabled among them. They viewed the spouse rather than the children as the primary caregiver. As the middle aged got closer to old age, they were better able to empathize the problems of the aged, when compared to the younger generations.
Studies showed that rural elderly prefer to involve their children and grandchildren in various types of social interactions more than the urban people. Data showed that the intergenerational distance in interactions was largely due to differences in interests more than differences in values between the generations. It was also noticed that the size and quality of social support networks was reduced among rural and urban elderly of today. Thus, the outcomes of modernization, out-migration, and dual career families brought structural and functional changes in the family and adversely affected elder care by the members of the extended family.

The Elder as a Resource

Elders are often viewed as a burden, a useless appendage and a drain on the family resources. Earlier Indian culture respected age as an invaluable resource both to the family as well as to the community.
Years of experience that has ripened into old age would have gathered many episodes that could act as reference guides for the younger, people, who are uninitiated into the vicissitudes of life. Many of the elderly can share the domestic chores, be it child rearing, care taking, housekeeping cooking and serving, and a variety of odd jobs around the house.
The elderly could effectively participate in community activities extending a helping hand whenever needed. These invisible contributions apart, could be an asset that could be bartered and would empower them to an extent.
The participation in these types of activities would be self – enhancing and provide a useful occupation for the mind and body protecting their functionality in fact any person could become a resource, if only an attempt is made to evaluate their potential and put it to use.
The unfortunate fact is that the community and the state of today are not putting to effective use these resources of the elderly. Consequently, what is patent is the perception of the elderly as a “burden”.

Social Security Programs for the Indian Elderly

Some of the programs intended to support the aged in the organized sectors are Non-Contributory Pension Schemes (NCPS), Provident Fund (PF) and Gratuity.
To cater to the needs of the destitute elderly in the unorganized sectors, and for the elderly living in the lower rungs of the society there is the Old Age Pension Scheme.
But these are paltry sums which are below the inflation rates that cannot even cover food needs.
Moreover, only a few percent of the elderly are covered in these schemes. Old age homes and day care centres cater only for the destitute, but they meet less than 5 percent of the demand.
These service centres are mostly run by philanthropic societies and of nongovernmental organizations with partial assistance from the state or the central government.
On the eve of the Golden Jubilee Year of Indian Independence, the government of India proposed a Policy for Older Persons.
It was prepared by an Inter-Ministerial Committee and a panel of experts in the field of Ageing. It was released in 1999 by the Ministry of Welfare.
The chief features of the policy were encouragement of special health care services like geriatric hospitals and clinics, infirmary care units, emphasis on family care of the aged through incentives and schemes for the needy families promotion of values through formal education and media, subsidizing old age homes and day care centres and other special services for the elderly.
The policy implementation is to be monitored by a National Council for Older Persons.

Conclusion

It is necessary for a multipronged approach to tackle the fast growing multifaceted problem of the management of the elderly in India. It would be useful to take cues from other developing countries that have dealt with elder care in a better fashion than India.
It may not be practicable to adopt the medical model of care system in India in view of its enormous costs involved in organization and infrastructure creation. The country needs to evolve an indigenous older care model which would incorporate several support - services into an overall family and community care system

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Introduction