5. Stratification and Mobility

1. Concepts: equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty, and deprivation. Poverty, deprivation, and inequalities (Topic 25). संकल्पनाएँ: समानता, असमानता, अधिक्रम, अपवर्जन, गरीबी एवं वंचन, गरीबी, वंचन एवं  असमानता। (विषय 25)।
2. Theories of social stratification: Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory, Weberian theory. सामाजिक स्तरीकरण के सिद्धांत: संरचनात्मक प्रकार्यवादी सिद्धांत, मार्क्सवादी सिद्धांत वेबर का सिद्धांत।
3. Dimensions: Social stratification of class, status groups, gender, ethnicity, and race. आयाम: वर्ग, स्थिति समूहों, लिंग, नृजातीयता एवं प्रजाति का सामाजिक स्तरीकरण।
4. Social mobility: open and closed systems, types of mobility, sources and causes of mobility. सामाजिक गतिशीलता: खुली एवं बंद व्यवस्थाएँ, गतिशीलता के प्रकार, गतिशीलता के स्रोत एवं कारण।

a. Concepts Equality, Inequality, Hierarchy, Exclusion, Poverty, and Deprivation

Equality:

• Refers to the idea of everyone having equal rights, opportunities, and treatment regardless of their social status or background.
• E.g. Right to Education Act (RTE) in India aimed to provide equal educational opportunities to all children, regardless of their socio-economic background.

Case study: Gender equality in Iceland

• Iceland has been ranked as the most gender-equal country in the world for several years.
• The country has implemented policies such as mandatory paternity leave, equal pay legislation, and quotas for women in corporate boards.
• As a result, Iceland has one of the smallest gender pay gaps in the world and high levels of female participation in the workforce.

Inequality: 

• Denotes the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups within a society.
• Example: Gender-based disparities are prevalent, with women having limited access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making roles compared to men.

Hierarchy: 

• Describes the structured arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on factors such as power, wealth, and social status, creating a vertical order.
• Example: Patriarchal structures contribute to a hierarchical order where men typically hold positions of power and authority, reinforcing gender inequalities.

Exclusion: 

• Occurs when certain individuals or groups are marginalized or kept outside of mainstream societal structures, leading to their limited participation or access to resources.
• Example: Women from marginalized communities, such as Dalits and tribal groups, experience intersecting forms of exclusion based on both gender and caste.

Poverty:

• Refers to a condition where individuals or groups lack the financial resources or basic necessities required for a decent standard of living.

Case study: Poverty in India

• India is home to one of the largest populations of people living in poverty in the world.
• The country has high levels of income inequality, with a large gap between the rich and the poor.

Deprivation:

• Denotes the lack of access to essential resources or opportunities, leading to a lower quality of life or restricted social participation.

Deprivation Case study: Food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa

• Sub-Saharan Africa is home to some of the highest levels of food insecurity in the world.
• Factors contributing to food insecurity in the region include climate change, conflict, and lack of access to resources.
• The lack of access to nutritious food has led to high levels of malnutrition and stunted growth in children in sub-Saharan Africa.

b. Theories of Social Stratification

Structural Functionalist Theory:

• This theory suggests that social stratification is necessary for the functioning of society. It argues that inequality is essential for ensuring that the most qualified individuals occupy the most important positions in society, leading to a more efficient and productive society.
• Argues that stratification motivates individuals to perform roles that are essential for the functioning of society, with rewards such as higher status and income for those in more crucial roles.
• Emphasizes the role of meritocracy, where individuals' positions are based on their abilities, efforts, and achievements.

Marxist Theory:

• Sees social stratification as a result of economic relations and class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (working class).
• Argues that the capitalist system leads to exploitation and alienation of the working class, with wealth and power concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists.
• Emphasizes the role of class consciousness and revolution in challenging and transforming the existing social hierarchy.

Weberian Theory:

• Expands the understanding of social stratification beyond just class to include status and power as dimensions of inequality.
• Class refers to a person's economic position, status refers to their social prestige, and power refers to their ability to influence others. 
• According to this theory, individuals can occupy different positions in society based on these factors.
• Emphasizes the role of social mobility, where individuals can move up or down the social ladder based on factors such as education, occupation, and social connections.

Conflict theory: 

• This theory views social stratification as a result of power struggles between different groups in society. 
• It argues that inequality is maintained through the exploitation of lower classes by the ruling class, leading to social conflict and unrest.

Intersectionality theory: 

• This theory suggests that social stratification is influenced by multiple factors, such as race, gender, and sexuality, in addition to class.
• It argues that individuals can experience different forms of oppression and privilege based on their intersecting identities, leading to complex and overlapping systems of inequality.

c. Dimensions of Social Stratification:

Class: 

• Refers to the division of society based on economic factors such as income, wealth, and occupation. Individuals are grouped into different classes based on their economic status.
• e.g. Caste system reflects the class system of the west in India.

Case study: The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

• The novel explores the lives of the wealthy upper class in the 1920s. Jay Gatsby who is a self-made millionaire, is trying to win back his former lover, Daisy Buchanan.
• The characters in the novel are divided into different social classes, with the wealthy elite living extravagant lifestyles while the working class struggle to make ends meet.
• The novel highlights the disparities in wealth and social status, showing how class can impact relationships, opportunities, and perceptions of success. 

Status groups: 

• Refers to the division of society based on social factors such as prestige, honor, and social standing.
• Individuals are grouped into different status groups based on their social status and reputation.

Case study: The Caste System in India

• The caste system in India is a social hierarchy that divides people into different groups based on their birth and occupation.
  Each caste has its own set of privileges and restrictions, with higher castes enjoying more social status and opportunities than lower castes.

Gender: 

• Refers to the division of society based on biological sex. Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power between men and women.

Case study: The Gender Pay Gap in the United States

• The gender pay gap refers to the disparity in earnings between men and women, with women typically earning less than men for the same work.
• The gender pay gap highlights the systemic inequalities that exist between men and women in society.
• Despite advancements in gender equality in USA, women continue to face discrimination in the workplace, leading to lower wages and fewer opportunities for career advancement.

Ethnicity: 

• Refers to the division of society based on cultural factors such as language, religion, and customs. Ethnic stratification refers to the unequal treatment and opportunities experienced by different ethnic groups.

Race: 

• Refers to the division of society based on physical characteristics such as skin color. Racial stratification refers to the unequal treatment and opportunities experienced by different racial groups.

Case study: Apartheid in South Africa

• Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa that lasted from 1948 to 1994.
• It classified people into different racial groups, with white South Africans enjoying superior rights and privileges over black, colored, and Indian South Africans.
• Apartheid led to widespread social and economic inequalities, with non-white South Africans facing systemic discrimination in education, employment, housing, and healthcare.

Other Dimensions: 

• Economic status: This includes factors such as income, wealth, and occupation. Individuals with higher economic status typically have more resources and opportunities available to them.
• Education: Education is a key determinant of social stratification, as individuals with higher levels of education often have better job prospects and higher earning potential.
• Occupation: The type of job a person holds can also impact their social status. Certain occupations are associated with higher levels of prestige, income, and social standing.
• Age: Age can also be a factor in social stratification, as older individuals may face discrimination or limited opportunities in the workforce compared to younger individuals.
• Geographic location: Where a person lives can also impact their social status, as individuals in urban areas may have access to more resources and opportunities compared to those in rural or remote areas.

d. Social mobility: Open and closed systems, types of mobility, sources and causes of mobility. सामाजिक गतिशीलताखुली एवं बंद व्यवस्थाएँ, गतिशीलता के प्रकार, गतिशीलता के स्रोत एवं कारण।

Social Mobility:

• Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups from one social class or status group to another.

Open and closed systems: 

• Open systems allow for movement between different social strata based on individual achievement and merit.
• Closed systems restrict movement between social strata based on factors such as birth, race, or gender.
• Example: The caste system in India is a closed system that limits social mobility based on one's family background.
• Example: The United States is often seen as an open system, where individuals can move up or down the social ladder based on their education, skills, and hard work. In contrast, some countries in the Middle East have closed systems, where social mobility is limited by factors such as family background and connections.

Types of mobility:

• Intergenerational mobility: Refers to the movement of individuals between social strata compared to their parents' social status.
• Intragenerational mobility: Refers to the movement of individuals between social strata within their own lifetime.
• Example: A person who goes from being a factory worker to a manager experiences vertical mobility.

Sources and causes of mobility:

• Education: Higher levels of education can lead to increased social mobility by providing individuals with skills and opportunities for advancement.
• Economic factors: Changes in the economy, such as job growth or recession, can impact social mobility by creating or limiting opportunities for advancement.
• Social networks: Connections and relationships with others can impact social mobility by providing access to resources, opportunities, and support.
• And many more… 

14. Caste System

1. Perspectives on the study of caste systems: G. S. Ghurye, M. N. Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille. जाति व्यवस्था के अध्ययन के परिप्रेक्ष्य (जीएस धुर्ये, एम.एन. श्रीनिवास, लुईदयूमां, आंद्रे बेतेय)
2. Features of caste system. Caste conflicts (Topic 25). जाति व्यवस्था के अभिलक्षण, जाति संघर्ष (विषय 25)।
3. Untouchability-forms and perspectives. अस्पृश्यता-रूप एवं परिप्रेक्ष्य।

a. Perspectives on the study of caste systems: G. S. Ghurye, M. N. Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille. 

G. S. Ghurye:

• Ghurye viewed the caste system as a unique social institution in India that has both positive and negative aspects.
• He believed that caste is a functional division of labor that helps maintain social order and stability.
• Ghurye also highlighted the discriminatory and oppressive nature of the caste system, particularly towards lower castes.

M. N. Srinivas:

• Srinivas introduced the concept of "Sanskritization" to explain how lower castes adopt the customs and practices of higher castes to improve their social status.
• He emphasized the dynamic nature of the caste system, with individuals and groups constantly negotiating their position within the system.
• Srinivas also critiqued the Western perspective on caste, arguing that it is not just a form of racial discrimination but a complex social hierarchy with its own internal logic.

Case Study: 

• The concept of Sanskritization can be seen in the example of a lower caste family adopting the customs and practices of a higher caste to improve their social status. This process of cultural emulation has been observed in various communities across India.

Louis Dumont:

• Dumont's work focused on the ideological and symbolic aspects of the caste system.
• He argued that the hierarchical nature of the caste system is based on the idea of purity and pollution, with higher castes being associated with purity and lower castes with pollution.
• Dumont also highlighted the role of religion in shaping the caste system, particularly the influence of Hinduism on caste-based beliefs and practices.

Case Study: 

• The practice of untouchability, where individuals from lower castes are considered impure and untouchable, reflects the ideological beliefs of purity and pollution in the caste system.

Andre Beteille:

• Beteille examined the relationship between caste and social mobility in India, particularly how caste influences access to education, employment, and other opportunities.
• He critiqued the idea of caste as a static and unchanging system, arguing that it has evolved over time in response to social, economic, and political changes.
• Beteille also highlighted the persistence of caste-based discrimination and inequality in modern Indian society, despite efforts to promote social justice and equality.

Case Study: 

• The reservation system in India, which provides quotas for lower castes in education and employment, highlights the ongoing challenges of social mobility and caste-based discrimination. Despite these affirmative action policies, caste-based inequalities persist in Indian society.

b. Features of caste system.

• Hierarchical social structure based on birth and occupation.
• Endogamy, or marriage within one's own caste.
• Ritual purity and pollution.
• Occupational specialization based on caste.
• Social and economic inequalities between castes.

c. Caste conflicts

• Conflicts arise due to competition for resources and power among different castes.
• Discrimination and oppression of lower castes by higher castes.
• Resistance and movements for social justice and equality.
• Political mobilization based on caste identities.

Case Study: 

• The Mandal Commission in India recommended reservations for Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in government jobs and educational institutions, leading to widespread protests and conflicts between different caste groups.

d. Untouchability-forms and perspectives

1. Untouchability

• Untouchability is a practice within the caste system in India where certain groups of people are considered impure and are therefore untouchable by higher caste individuals.
• This practice has led to discrimination, segregation, and violence against those deemed untouchable.
• Examples of untouchability include prohibition from entering temples, using the same wells as higher castes, or even sitting in the same spaces as them.

2. Forms of Untouchability

• Occupational untouchability: Discrimination based on certain jobs or occupations deemed "impure" or inferior in a society.
• Social untouchability: Exclusion or segregation from social interactions and spaces based on perceived caste, class, or ethnic differences.
• Economic untouchability: Denial of economic opportunities, resources, or fair wages due to caste or social status.
• Educational untouchability: Systematic barriers or biases that limit access to education or quality educational opportunities for certain groups.
• Political untouchability: Exclusion or marginalization of certain communities or individuals from political participation or decision-making processes.
• Religious untouchability: Exclusion or discrimination based on religious beliefs or practices, often leading to social segregation and unequal treatment.
• Cultural untouchability: Refers to restrictions on cultural interactions, such as inter-caste marriages or sharing of common spaces like temples or community centers.
• Marital untouchability: Imposes restrictions on matrimonial alliances between different caste groups, often leading to social stigma and ostracism.
• Residential untouchability: Involves segregation in housing and locality based on caste, leading to separate settlements or neighborhoods for different caste groups.
• Language-based untouchability: In certain contexts, there may be discrimination based on language, especially in multilingual societies where certain languages are associated with particular caste groups.
• Healthcare untouchability: Denial of access to healthcare services or discrimination in healthcare settings based on caste identity, leading to unequal treatment and health outcomes.

3. Perspectives on Untouchability

From a sociological perspective, untouchability is seen as a form of social stratification that reinforces power dynamics and inequality within society.

Functionalism - Emile Durkheim

• The practice of untouchability serves a social function by reinforcing social norms and values within the caste system.
• It views untouchability as a functional part of society, serving to maintain social order and cohesion by segregating certain groups.
• Example: Untouchables perform roles considered polluting, such as handling dead bodies, which helps maintain social hierarchy and purity for others.

Conflict Theory - B. R. Ambedkar

• Ambedkar sees untouchability as a manifestation of social conflict and power struggles between dominant and marginalized groups.
• Ambedkar believed that untouchability was a social evil rooted in the caste system. He argued that untouchability perpetuated discrimination and inequality in Indian society.
• Example: Untouchables are denied access to resources and opportunities, reinforcing the dominance of higher castes and perpetuating social inequality.

Structural-Functionalism - M. N. Srinivas

• Srinivas examines untouchability within the broader social structure, focusing on how caste norms and institutions perpetuate social stratification.
• Srinivas studied the concept of untouchability in the context of social change in India. He emphasized the role of modernization and urbanization in challenging traditional caste-based practices.
• Example: Caste-based occupations and social roles reinforce untouchability, creating barriers to social mobility and reinforcing caste-based inequalities.

Max Weber’s Views:

• Weber, a German sociologist, believed that untouchability was a form of social stratification that served to maintain power dynamics within Indian society. 
• He viewed caste as a system of social control and domination.

Symbolic Interactionism - Erving Goffman

• It focuses on the symbolic meanings attached to untouchability, examining how social interactions shape perceptions and reinforce stigma.
• Example: Untouchables face social stigma and discrimination in everyday interactions, leading to their marginalization and exclusion from mainstream society.

Feminist Perspective

• It emphasizes the intersectionality of gender and caste in understanding untouchability, highlighting the double burden faced by Dalit women.
• Example: Dalit women experience discrimination based on both caste and gender, leading to their increased vulnerability and limited access to resources.

15. Tribal Communities in India:

1. Definitional problems. परिभाषात्मक समस्याएं। 
2. Geographical spread. भौगोलिक विस्तार । 
3. Colonial policies and tribes. औपनिवेशिक नीतियां और जनजातियां। 
4. Issues of integration and autonomy. एकीकरण एवं स्वायत्तता के मुद्दे।

(a) Definitional problems:

• There is no universally accepted definition of tribal communities in India.
• Different criteria such as social, economic, cultural, and geographical factors are used to define tribes.
• The term 'Scheduled Tribes' is used in the Indian Constitution to refer to tribal communities.

(b) Geographical spread:

• Tribal communities are found in various regions of India, including the Northeast, Central India, and Southern India.
• They are often concentrated in hilly and forested areas, away from mainstream society.

(c) Colonial policies and tribes:

• The British introduced laws and administrative systems that marginalized and exploited tribal populations.
• Land alienation, forced labor, and cultural assimilation were common practices under colonial rule.
• Case study: The impact of British colonial policies on the Adivasi communities in Jharkhand sheds light on the historical injustices faced by tribal populations in India.

Important Policies:

• Land Policies: Land alienation and displacement of tribal communities for resource extraction and settlement purposes.
• Social Policies: Imposition of cultural norms, suppression of tribal customs, and attempts at social integration through education and missionary activities.
• Economic Policies: Exploitative practices like forced labor, land revenue systems, and control over forest resources leading to economic marginalization.
• Legal and Political Policies: Introduction of laws and administrative structures that often disregarded tribal rights and autonomy, leading to conflicts over land and governance.
• Cultural Policies: Promotion of mainstream cultural values, undermining tribal languages, traditions, and spiritual practices.
• Assimilation vs Isolation Policies: Dual approach of assimilation through education and Christianization, alongside policies isolating tribes in reserved areas, contributing to identity struggles and cultural erosion.

Tribal Assimilation vs. Tribal Isolation

The debate started in colonial period, and it is continued till date. 

(d) Issues of integration and autonomy:

• Tribal communities in India face challenges in terms of integration into mainstream society while maintaining their cultural identity.
• Development projects, land acquisition, and displacement have often led to conflicts between tribes and the government.
• The demand for autonomy and self-governance among tribal communities has been a recurring issue.
• Example: The Naga tribes in Northeast India have been demanding greater autonomy and recognition of their distinct identity for decades.

16. Social Classes in India

1. Agrarian class structure. कृषिक वर्ग संरचना। 
2. Industrial class structure. औद्योगिक वर्ग संरचना। 
3. Middle classes in India. भारत में मध्यम वर्ग।

(a) Agrarian class structure:

• The agrarian class structure in India is based on land ownership and control of agricultural resources.
• The upper class consists of large landowners who own vast tracts of land and have significant political and economic power. 
• The middle class includes small landowners and tenant farmers who work on the land owned by others.
• The lower class comprises landless agricultural laborers who work for wages on farms owned by others.

Case study: The Green Revolution in Punjab

• The Green Revolution in Punjab led to the emergence of a wealthy agrarian upper class of large landowners who benefited from the introduction of high-yielding crop varieties and modern agricultural practices.
• The middle class in Punjab includes small landowners and tenant farmers who have seen varying levels of success in adopting new technologies and increasing their agricultural productivity.
• The lower class in Punjab comprises landless agricultural laborers who continue to face challenges in accessing land and earning a stable income in the changing agrarian landscape.

(b) Industrial class structure:

• The industrial class structure in India is based on employment in various industries and sectors.
• The upper class consists of industrialists and business owners who control large corporations and have significant wealth and power.
• The middle class includes white-collar workers such as managers, engineers, and professionals who work in industries and services.
• The lower class comprises blue-collar workers such as factory workers, construction workers, and manual laborers who work in industries and earn lower wages.

Case study: The textile industry in Tamil Nadu

• It is dominated by industrialists and business owners who control large textile mills and garment factories, forming the upper class in the industrial sector.
• The middle class in the textile industry includes white-collar workers such as managers, designers, and engineers who play key roles in the production and management of textile operations.
• The lower class in the textile industry consists of blue-collar workers such as weavers, tailors, and garment workers who work in factories and earn lower wages.

(c) Middle classes in India:

• The middle classes in India are diverse and include a range of occupations and income levels.
• The upper-middle class consists of professionals, entrepreneurs, and managers who have high incomes and enjoy a comfortable lifestyle.
• The lower-middle class includes small business owners, government employees, and skilled workers who have moderate incomes and aspire to improve their social and economic status.
• The middle class is often seen as the backbone of the Indian economy and society, driving consumption and economic growth.

Case study: The Middle Class in Bangalore

• The middle class in Bangalore is diverse and dynamic, with individuals from various backgrounds and professions driving innovation and economic growth in the region.
• The IT sector in Bangalore has led to the growth of an affluent upper-middle class of software engineers, IT professionals, and entrepreneurs who have benefited from the booming tech industry.
• The lower-middle class in Bangalore includes small business owners, service providers, and skilled workers who support the IT sector and contribute to the city's economy.

(d) New Middle Class in India

• The new middle class is a rapidly growing segment of the population that is characterized by higher levels of education, increased disposable income, and a desire for a better quality of life.
• This group is typically made up of professionals, entrepreneurs, and skilled workers in industries such as IT, finance, healthcare, and retail.
• Members of the new middle class are often tech-savvy, well-traveled, and have a more global outlook compared to previous generations. They are also more likely to be consumers of luxury goods and services, as well as adopters of new technologies and trends.