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  • PYQs (GS & Optional)
  • Spectrophotometer, phase contrast and fluorescence microscopy, radioactive tracer, ultra centrifuge, gel electrophoresis, PCR, ELISA, FISH, and chromosome painting.

    • Spectrophotometer
      • Principle and applications of spectrophotometry.
      • Define the primary structure of proteins and its application in biological studies.
      • Explain the principle, instrumentation and applications of UV-Visible Spectrophotometer.
      • Spectrophotometry and Flame photometry.
      • Explain the principle of spectrophotometer and describe its following components: (i) Radiation sources (ii) Phototube (iii) Prism
      • Write a brief note on the principle and applications of a spectrophotometer.
      • Write the principle, working and uses of spectrophotometer.
      • Write the principle, working and uses of spectrophotometer.
      • What is the principle of spectrophotometry? Discuss the details of instrumentation and application of spectrophotometer. Comment upon the common feature of spectrophotometric assay and ELISA, if any. (150 words)
      • Discuss the theoretical basis of spectrophotometry with reference to the Beer-Lambert law. Write an account of the Instrumentation, maintenance, and application of spectrophotometer.
      • Explicate the principle and application of Spectrophotometer.
      • What is Lambert-Beer's Law? Discuss the construction of spectrophotometer. Add a note on the applications of UV-visible spectrophotometry in biological studies.
      • What is spectrophotometry? Write an account of its application in biology.
    • Phase Contrast Microscopy
      • Differentiate between the Phase Contrast and Fluorescent Microscopy.
      • Differentiate between the Phase Contrast and Fluorescent Microscopy.
    • Fluorescence Microscopy
      • Write about phase contrast and fluorescence microscopy with notes on their principles and applications in Zoology.
      • Differentiate between the Phase Contrast and Fluorescent Microscopy.
      • Differentiate between the Phase Contrast and Fluorescent Microscopy.
    • Radioactive Tracers
    • Ultra Centrifuge
      • Ultracentrifuge.
      • Explain the principle, types, and applications of ultracentrifuge.
      • Ultra-centrifuge
    • Gel Electrophoresis
      • Describe principle, working mechanism and applications of gel electrophoresis.
      • Describe the principle and applications of gel electrophoresis.
      • Gel Electrophoresis
    • PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
      • Write principle, working mechanism and uses of PCR.
      • Describe the principle and applications of polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
      • PCR.
    • ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)
      • What is ELISA? Explain the principle, types, procedure and applications of ELISA.
      • Explain the principle and procedure of “ELISA”. Give a note on its application.
      • What is ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay)? Write its principle and procedure. Add a note on its applications.
      • What is ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay)? Write its principle and procedure. Add a note on its applications.
    • FISH (Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization)
      • Role of fins in fish locomotion.
      • Scales in fishes
      • "Continental drift has resulted in discontinuous distribution of alligators and lungfishes". Justify.
      • Describe different types of scales in fishes with suitable diagrams.
      • FISH
      • Describe different patterns of fish migration and write about its significance.
      • Describe various accessory respiratory organs of fishes with examples.
      • Air-breathing fishes
      • Polyculture and Integrated fish farming
      • Explain the importance of fisheries in India. Write about the conservation strategies of finfish and shellfish.
      • Define Migration and describe various types of Migration in Fishes with suitable examples. Comment upon its significance.
      • Briefly describe types of dermal scales and their structures in fishes.
      • Give an account of accessory respiratory structures in fishes with a note on their biological significance.
      • Differentiate between culture and capture fisheries.
      • Some fishes can breathe air. Elaborate.
      • Describe FISH: Principle, Procedure and Applications.
      • Catadromous migration among fishes
      • Differentiate the basic characters of cartilaginous and Bony fishes with relevant diagrams.
      • Differentiate the basic characters of cartilaginous and Bony fishes with relevant diagrams.
      • Define Migration. Add a detailed account of migration in fishes with relevant examples.
      • Migration of fishes
      • What is meant by migration? Write a detailed account of migration in fishes and its importance.
      • Scales of fishes and their significance
      • What is catadromous and anadromous migration of fishes? Discuss the adaptive features and causes of such behavior.
    • Chromosome Painting
      • Chromosome Painting.
      • Describe chromosome painting and its versatility in modern diagnostics.
      • What is chromosome painting? Comment on its principles and scope.
      • What is chromosome painting? Comment on its principles and scope.
    • Misc.
      • Food Web.
      • Ozone layer and its importance.
      • Ozone layer depletion.
      • What are the possible consequences of ozone layer depletion?
      • What is the ozone layer? Describe the mechanism of degradation of the ozone layer and its impact.
      • What is ozone layer? Describe the mechanism of degradation of the ozone layer and its impact.
      • Describe the carbon cycle and discuss its peculiarities. How do human activities interfere with the carbon cycle?
      • The ozone layer and its impact.
      • Global warming, its causes, and effects.
      • Suitable examples describe the biotic factors that influence intra- and interspecific relations.
      • Draw a flow diagram of the nitrogen cycle and give accounts of nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification.
      • Give the mechanism of ozone degradation by chlorofluorocarbons.
      • Draw diagrams to differentiate between ecological pyramids based on predator-prey relationship and energy flow in an ecological niche.
      • Write note on ecological pyramids with suitable examples.
      • Ecological niche.
      • What is Integrated Pest Management? Describe the different strategies of integrated pest management employed in agriculture.
      • Define ecosystem. Discuss the structure and functions of ecosystem.
      • Discuss environmental degradation with regards to inland water resources. Suggest measures to restore the water quality of our rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
      • Elaborate the term 'Ecosystem' and explain its structural components with examples. Comment on Trophic Dynamics concept.
      • What is Ganga action plan? Explain.
      • Give an account of causes and consequences of pollution of aquatic resources and the problem of cultural eutrophication. Suggest measures for the abatement of water degradation.
      • Distinguish between a dominant and keystone species. Add a note on the crucial role played by the keystone species on the community structure and structure of a food web.
      • Define ecosystem. Discuss the dynamic of the ecosystem and the factors influencing it.
      • Explicate the 'Nitrogen Cycle' and comment on its importance in the ecosystem?
      • Aquatic ecosystem
      • Trophic levels.
      • Trophic levels.
      • What is meant by the population? Describe various characteristics of a population. Discuss the phenomenon of stabilization of populations.
      • “A population is a self-regulating system.” (Wynne Edwards). Explain.
      • What is meant by distribution? Explain patterns of distribution in natural populations.
      • What is meant by distribution? Explain patterns of distribution in natural populations.
      • “A population is a self-regulating system.” Justify.
      • What is population growth? Delineate different factors affecting population growth. Distinguish between “J” shaped and “S” shaped growth curve with examples.
      • Differentiate between population dispersal and population dispersion.
      • Define population. Explain the characteristics of a population.
      • Describe various means which result in change in gene frequencies in a population.
      • Distinguish between founder effect and bottleneck effect. How do these forces affect gene frequency of a large population?
      • Distinguish between a dominant and keystone species. Add a note on the crucial role played by the keystone species on the community structure and structure of a food web.
      • What are various biological resources? Discuss in detail the efforts made and present status of conservation of biological resources in India.
      • Write an account of the mission "Project Tiger" and mention the conservation strategies.
      • What is Project Tiger? Discuss the various threats and conservation strategies to protect tigers in India.
      • What are Euphenics? Explain its use for the improvement of human welfare.
      • Distinguish between in situ and ex situ conservation of animals. Provide suitable examples.
      • Discuss the role of molecular taxonomy in coding of biodiversity.
      • What is taxonomic hierarchy? Explain biodiversity on the basis of molecular taxonomy using suitable examples.
      • Red Data Book.
      • What is ‘Ganga action plan’? Explain.
      • What is the ozone layer? Describe the mechanism of degradation of the ozone layer and its impact.
      • Discuss briefly the degradation of terrestrial ecosystems by human activities.
      • Ozone layer, its destruction, and effects.
      • Describe the rapidly acting synaptic transmitters with suitable examples.
      • Define ‘insight’. Explain this behavior using the example of Chimpanzees.
      • How do animals navigate in the dark? Use owl and chiropterans as examples and highlight the features of their navigational sensory equipment.
      • How do animals perceive mechanical and olfactory stimuli from the environment? Explain.
      • Explain Aggressive and Territorial behaviour in animals, with suitable examples.
      • Describe the Predator-Prey relationship with suitable examples.
      • Describe the Predator-Prey relationship with suitable examples.
      • With suitable example describe the neuro-endocrine control of behaviors.
      • Indian major carps and Exotic carps
      • What are the different criteria for the selection of candidate species for aquaculture?
      • Through a labelled diagram, show the stages of the life-history of Bombyx mori.
      • Beneficial insects.
      • Induced breeding.
      • Induced breeding for major carps.
      • Culture of freshwater prawns.
      • Elaborate on the structural organization of compound eye in prawn.
      • What are the major carps of India? Describe the polyculture methods of rearing the major carps.
      • Amniocentesis
      • Define a pest. Describe the life cycle of Pyrilla perpusilla. Add notes on the damage caused by it and its control measures.
      • Define a pest. Describe the life cycle of Pyrilla perpusiella. Add notes on the damage caused by it and its control measures.
      • Describe the life history and pathogenicity of Pyrilla perpusilla. Note on its preventive measures.
      • Write scientific names of any three pests of stored grains and describe the nature of damage and management of Sitophilus oryzae.
      • Account for the damage caused by two major insect pests for each of the paddy and stored cereals, with a note on the bionomics and control measures of the pests.
      • Mean and Mode
      • Natality and Mortality
      • Lotka-Volterra model
      • Give an account of “Analysis of variance” and mention its significance.
      • Describe the principle and application of ANOVA.
      • Give an account of "Analysis of variance" and mention its significance.
      • Standard deviation, standard error, and methods of sampling.
      • Explain the arithmetic mean. Calculate arithmetic mean of classified data with an example.
      • Give an account of "Analysis of variance" and mention its significance.
      • Describe the principle, working mechanism and applications of Geiger Muller counter.
      • Describe the principle, working and applications of Scintillation counter.
      • Insect vision.
      • Describe the principle and working of a Geiger-Muller counter and its use in Biology.
      • Electrophoresis is a valuable tool in resolving cryptic-species complexes. Discuss.
      • Electrophoresis is a valuable tool in resolving cryptic-species complexes. Discuss.
      • Describe the principle, structure and function of Liquid scintillation counter and mention its application.
      • Describe the principle, structure, and function of the Liquid scintillation counter and mention its application.
      • Explain the principle, working, and applications of the Geiger-Muller counter.
      • While using a compound microscope, how will you know how much you are magnifying an object? Through a distance under low and high powers. (150 words)
      • Describe the principle and working of a flame photometer.
      • Illustrate the organisation of electron transport particles on the inner mitochondrial membrane and explain their role in ATP synthesis.
      • Describe in detail about the respiratory chain or electron transport during oxidative phosphorylation in Mitochondria.
      • Explain with the help of diagrams, how the transport of electrons through the four complexes of the respiratory chain in mitochondria leads to the formation of a proton gradient and ATP synthesis.
      • Give schematic representation of electron transport chain. Describe the energy coupling mechanism in oxidative phosphorylation using chemiosmotic model.
      • Difference between male heterogamety and female heterogamety with examples.
      • Explain how the biological energy transformations obey the laws of thermodynamics.
      • What is Hox gene? Give the properties of Hox Gene and its cluster. What role do they play in humans?
      • What is DNA fingerprinting? Explain the principles and applications of DNA fingerprinting.
      • Describe the principle, procedure and applications of DNA fingerprinting.
      • Explain the following: (i) Principle of DNA fingerprinting
      • Explain the following: (ii) Michaelis-Menten kinetic pattern of an enzymatic reaction
      • What do you mean by a genetic clone? Describe a protocol of cloning of a recombinant DNA.
      • Explain the use of minisatellite DNA in the process of DNA fingerprinting.
      • Intraspecific relations.
      • Enumerate the selection pressures that led to bipedal locomotion in hominids.
      • Haeckel propounded the concept (law), “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. Give evidence and examples that negate it or favor it.
      • Haeckel propounded the concept (law), “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. Give evidence and examples that negate it or favor it.
      • Fossil reptiles and their evolutionary significance.
      • Write an essay on the fossil records of amphibians to explain their origin and evolution.
      • Eohippus and Parahippus.
      • Dating of fossils.
      • Identify the five important evolutionary changes that led to the evolution of modern Homo sapiens from the ancestral stock during various Geological eras and epochs.
      • What are fossils? Describe the process of fossil formation and give two methods of determining the age of fossils.
      • Write an account of the methods of determination of the age of fossils.
      • How are fossils formed? Describe the methods of dating of fossils.
      • Affinities of Balanoglossus.
      • Describe the traditional methods of classification of animals.
      • Discuss the laws of thermodynamics and their applications in biological systems.
      • Describe the use of molecular techniques in animal taxonomy.
      • Describe different types of vectors.
      • What is ICZN? Explain the principle, scope, and limitations in the presentday scenario of nomenclature.
      • What is I.V.F.? Make a flow chart of steps in I.V.F. Add a note on its applications.
      • What is I.V.F.? Make a flow chart of steps in I.V.F. Add a note on its applications.
      • Species and Subspecies.
      • Genera and Species.
      • Binomial system of classification.
      • Methods of zoological classification.
      • Chemotaxonomy and cytotaxonomy.
      • Chemotaxonomy.
      • Affinities and systematic position of Balanoglossus.
      • Write the systematic position of an oilseed pest. Give an account of its life cycle and the damage caused by this pest. Write a note on its control measures.
      • Describe the mechanism of synthesis of protein and steroid hormones. How do they affect cellular activity.
      • What are gap junction proteins? Discuss the roles of connexins in cellular interaction.
      • Peroxysome and Glyoxysome.
      • Neurohormones and Neurohumors.
      • ACTH.
      • Draw welllabelled diagrams of transverse sections of mammalian testis and ovary. Describe the functions of male and female sex hormones (Testosterone and Estrogen).
      • Compare the functions of prostaglandins and histamine. Give reasons for their being considered as hormones.
      • Describe the functional anatomy of neuroendocrine interrelationship in mammalian hypophysis. Name hypothalamic and hypophyseal hormones in the tabular form showing their functional relationship. With the help of the diagram only, explain feedback mechanism in the HPG axis.
      • Give the structural formula of an amino acid and show how a peptide bond formation occurs. Also explain how amino acids differ from each other.
      • Give the structural formula of an amino acid and show how a peptide bond formation occurs. Also explain how amino acids differ from each other.
      • Explain the neuroendocrine regulation of insect metamorphosis with suitable illustrations. Comment on the role of JH (Juvenile Hormone) in insect metamorphosis.
      • Define Apoptosis. Explain its mechanism with suitable example.
      • Give an account of chemical nature and function of Neurohypophyseal hormones in mammals.
      • Illustrate the structure of a dipeptide and mention the characteristics of the peptide bond.
      • What is thermoregulation? How do homeothermic animals sustain by maintaining their body temperature in harsh climatic condition?
      • With the help of a welllabelled diagram (ventral aspect), describe the heart of rabbit showing major blood vessels. Add a note on the mechanism of circulation through the heart.
      • What controls heartbeat, and the rate at which blood flows through the circulatory system?
      • How does the structure of antibody give its specificity of functions? Add a note on the causes of allergic reaction.
      • Mention the different steps in the metabolism of iron. What are the functions that require iron? Add a note on the regulatory mechanism that ensure stable titers of iron in the body.
      • Explain ABO blood groups with its genetic basis and significance in blood transfusion.
      • Elucidate the importance of thermoregulation with reference to its relationship with homeostasis in endothermic animals.
      • Elucidate the importance of thermoregulation with reference to its relationship with homeostasis in endothermic animals.
      • Give a comprehensive account of gaseous transport in blood.
      • Genetic basis of ABO blood group system.
      • Describe the role of Calcitonin, Parathormone and Vitamin D3, in calcium metabolism.
      • Explain the extrinsic pathway for initiation of blood clotting.
      • Describe the genetics of ABO human blood groups. Can a man of blood group B be the father of the child of a woman of blood group A? The blood group of the child is O. Explain the genotypes.
      • Give a diagrammatic representation of citric acid cycle and discuss its role in metabolism.
      • Define thermoregulation. How do homeotherms regulate body temperature in hot and cold climates?
      • (i) Explain ATP utilizing reactions of glycolytic pathway.
      • (ii) Write NADH and FADH, producing reactions of Krebs cycle.
      • ABO system of blood groups and its basis, and erythroblastosis foetalis.
      • Chloride shift
      • What are erythroid cells? Explain the RBC lineage in balancing haemoglobin manufacture.
      • Draw a welllabelled schematic diagram of the feeding current through the gut of Branchiostoma, and comment on the mechanism of feeding and digestion.
      • Henley's loop.
      • On your answerbook, write down the name of each of the ganglia marked (i) to (vii) in the diagram below on the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of autonomic nervous system: parasympathetic sympathetic Nervous system; Nervous System. How do they regulate the visceral and reflex functions of the body?
      • Discuss the mechanism involved in the survival of estuarine animals in varying salinities.
      • Explain the role of ADH and juxtaglomerular complex in the regulation of kidney function.
      • Illustrate the countercurrent mechanism by vasa recta and mention its physiological importance.
      • Explain the counter current mechanism operating at vasa recta and its role in urine formation.
      • With suitable examples, compare the chemical structure and functions of acetylcholine (in adrenergic neuron) and serotonin / 5hydroxytryptamine / γamino butyric acid (in peptidergic neurons).
      • What do you understand by osmoregulation? Describe the phenomenon and physiology of urine formation.
      • What is hypothalamopituitary axis? Draw a welllabelled diagram of pituitary gland and describe the functions of its hormones.
      • Capacitation and Acrosome reaction.
      • Organogenesis in the frog embryo.
      • Comparison of alimentary canal of frog and rabbit.
      • Draw well labelled diagrams only of male urinogenital system of Labeo and frog.
      • Describe the role of neuroendocrine factors and Sertoli cell secretions on spermatogenic functions of human seminiferous tubules.
      • Describe hyoid apparatus in Frog or Necturus.
      • What are the stages of the development of animals? How is it done?
      • Explain in detail about the events involved in the transformation of spermatid into sperm. Comment on why you consider these changes as essential.
      • Describe the process of metamorphosis in frogs and explain the role of thyroxin.
      • Illustrate the process of development during gastrulation in a chick embryo.
      • Describe with welllabelled diagram, the stages involved in Meiotic prophase.
      • What is primordial germ cell? With the help of suitable diagram, discuss the process of oogenesis.
      • Competence in embryology.
      • Regeneration and Neoplasia.
      • Regeneration.
      • Regeneration.
      • What is embryonic induction? Describe the mechanism of induction giving examples.
      • Describe the mechanism of embryonic induction giving examples.
      • Give a schematic representation of differentiation of sexual phenotypes during early embryonic development in mammals.
      • Explain the functions of mammalian integument.
      • Role of mosquitoes as vectors of human diseases.
      • Give an account of gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle and briefly discuss their pathogenicity.
      • Explain various measures implemented by the government to manage vehicular pollution in India.
      • List various population characteristics. Explain Jshaped and Sshaped growth forms with suitable examples.
      • Differentiate between inner and outer mitochondrial membrane.
      • Explain different steps in the activation of receptor protein tyrosine kinase with diagrams.
      • Give a brief account of evolution of man in Pleistocene period.
      • How does glucagon regulate the glycogen metabolism?
      • Using R groups properties, classify amino acids.
      • Describe the structure and functions of antibody isotypes with diagrams.
      • What is regeneration? Describe regenerative ability in hydra, planaria and urodele amphibians.
  1. PYQs and Practice Questions
  2. UPSC Optionals
  3. Zoology Optional
  4. Instrumentation Methods
  5. Spectrophotometer, phase contrast and fluorescence microscopy, radioactive tracer, ultra centrifuge, gel electrophoresis, PCR, ELISA, FISH, and chromosome painting.
  6. Fluorescence Microscopy

Differentiate between the Phase Contrast and Fluorescent Microscopy. (UPSC 2014, 10 Marks, )

  1. Posted by: Synopsis IAS
  2. Posted on:31 July 2025
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फेज कॉन्ट्रास्ट और फ्लोरेसेंट माइक्रोस्कोपी के बीच अंतर करें। (Differentiate between the Phase Contrast and Fluorescent Microscopy.)
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