Meaning: What is Political Theory? ( PSIR Optional)

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Political theory is a systematic reflection on political ideas, values, institutions, and practices. As per Sabine, it deals with ‘what is’, ‘why it is’, and ‘what ought to be’ in the realm of politics.

Elements in a Political Theory Text

1. Factual statements – What exists?
2. Causal statements – Why does it exist?
3. Valuational statements – What should exist?

Different scholars interpret political theory in various ways based on their emphasis on facts, values, or causes:

Thinker	View on Political Theory
Sabine	Political theory contains factual, causal, and valuational elements.
Hecker	A dispassionate and disinterested philosophical and scientific activity.
Bluhen	An abstract model of political order used to systematically analyze political data.
Andrew Heywood	Differentiates between Traditional (normative) and Formal (scientific/economic) political theory.

In essence, political theory is both a philosophy of politics and a science of political analysis, reflecting on political life and seeking ideal political orders.

Historical Context of Political Theory

Political theory has flourished in times of transition, such as:

• 5th Century BC Greece: Shift from city-state to empire (Plato, Aristotle).
• 17th Century England: Rise of the constitutional state and scientific rationalism (Hobbes, Locke).
• Ancient Civilizations: Parallel developments in India, China, Egypt.

Initially, political theorists were philosophers or moral thinkers, not formal political scientists.

(i) Classical Political Theory

Timeframe: Ancient Greece to 19th century

Thinkers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Cicero

Key Features:

• Philosophical and normative in nature
• Sought ideal forms of political organization
• Analyzed the political whole: institutions, rulers-ruled relationship, and public good
• Emphasized order, harmony, justice, and citizenship
• Used comparative analysis of regimes (monarchy, aristocracy, democracy)

Concept	Classical View
Justice	Central value in ideal state
State	Means to moral and ethical life
Citizen	Member of the political whole with duties and virtues

(ii) Modern Political Theory

Timeframe: 16th century to mid-20th century

Thinkers: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Marx

Key Features:

• Shift from normative to scientific approach
• Focus on present, immediate, and empirical aspects of politics
• Rise of behaviouralism, positivism, and Marxism
• Classifiable into:
• Liberal Tradition: Emphasized individualism, pluralism (e.g., Locke)
• Marxist Tradition: Emphasized class struggle and materialism (e.g., Marx)

Comparison	Classical	Modern
Method	Normative	Scientific/Empirical
Focus	Ideal state	Real-life structures
Nature	Philosophical	Analytical/Behavioral

(iii) Contemporary Political Theory

Timeframe: Post-1970s onwards

Thinkers: Rawls, Nozick, Brian Barry, Plamenatz

Key Features:

• Integrates classical ideals with empirical tools
• Concerned with real-world political issues (justice, rights, liberty, equality)
• Combines scientific analysis with ethical reflection
• Seeks to balance values and facts

Thinker	Contribution
Rawls	Justice as fairness (normative with rational method)
Nozick	Libertarianism and minimal state
Barry	Emphasis on link between principles and institutions
Plamenatz	Advocated for coexistence of empirical and ethical methods

Classification by Andrew Heywood

Type	Features
Traditional Political Theory	Normative, ethical, historical, literary
Formal Political Theory	Rational, economic model-building, scientific

Traditional theory is idea-centric, while formal theory is model-centric.

Thinkers’ Perspectives on Political Theory

1. Sabine's View

1. Sabine’s Understanding of Political Theory

• G.H. Sabine, in his famous book A History of Political Theory, discusses political theory as a broad and inclusive subject.
• He makes no clear distinction between political theory, political thought, and political philosophy.
• According to Sabine:
• “Political Theory is, quite simply, man’s attempts to consciously understand and solve the problems of his group life and organization....... It is the disciplined investigation of political problems..... not only to show what a political practice is, but also to show what it means. In showing what a practice means, or what it ought to mean, political theory can alter what it is.”

2. Relationship Between Political Theory, Political Philosophy, and Political Thought

• Sabine, and thinkers like Roger Scruton, believe that political theory, thought, and philosophy are interconnected:
• All attempt to understand, evaluate, and suggest solutions to political issues.
• They include values, behaviour analysis, and institutional mechanisms (like laws).
• According to Scruton, political thought involves:
• Theories to explain political behaviour,
• Values used to judge actions,
• Mechanisms like laws to control behaviour.

3. Key Elements of Political Theory (According to Sabine)

A political theory text includes three essential components:

1. Factual Statements – what is happening
2. Causal Explanations – what is likely to happen and why
3. Normative Claims – what ought to happen (values)

• Sabine describes political theory as containing factual, causal, and valuational factors.
• It moves from describing reality (what is) to suggesting improvements (what ought to be).

4. Historical Context and Growth of Political Theory

• Political theory often emerges and flourishes in times of social and political crises, as people search for better systems and values.
• According to Sabine, two key periods of political theory development were:
• 5th Century BC in Greece – when the Greek city-states were being replaced by empires under Philip and Alexander.
• 17th Century AD in England – emergence of the first constitutional nation-state and major intellectual and scientific revolutions leading up to the modern West.

5. Global Development of Political Thought

• While Greece is considered the birthplace of political theory (6th–5th century BC), India, China, and Egypt also developed distinct philosophical and political worldviews around the same time.

6. Political Theory as an Academic Discipline

• Though it has ancient roots, political theory became a formal academic field only in recent times.
• It is now one of the core areas of political science.
• It studies:
• Political phenomena, processes, and institutions
• Actual political behaviour, with philosophical and ethical evaluations
• Central to it is the question:
• "What is the best political order?"
• Which ties into the deeper question:
• "What is the ideal life for a human being within society?"

2. John Plamenatz

1. Definition and Nature of Political Theory

• John Plamenatz emphasized that political theory is not just about how governments function, but rather about systematic thinking on the purposes of government.
• For him, political theory is a normative discipline, similar to moral or ethical theory, focused on evaluating values, goals, and principles—not merely describing or explaining facts.

o   Political theory is not an escape mechanism but an arduous calling.

• He defined political theory in functional terms:

"Its function is to analyze and clarify the vocabulary of politics, and to critically examine, verify, and justify political concepts used in arguments."

2. Defense of Political Theory

• In his essay “The Ease of Political Theory,” Plamenatz rejected the claim that political philosophy is dead—a claim made by logical positivists who argued that political theory deals with confused or meaningless questions.
• He asserted that political theory is still essential and valuable for the following reasons:

3. Importance and Functions of Political Theory

i. Intellectual Challenge and Relevance

• Political theory is a serious and complex intellectual activity, especially important in modern times.

ii. Study of Norms and Values

• It focuses on values, norms, and goals—though unlike empirical theory, it doesn’t give observable “facts,” it offers moral guidance and evaluation.

iii. Influence on Society

• Political theories have historically shaped people’s understanding of themselves and society.
• These ideas have deeply impacted political and social behavior.

iv. Ideological Role

• Political theory contains elements of socially conditioned ideology.
• Even when ideological beliefs may be illusory, such illusions have shaped the direction of human history and society.

v. Guidance for Political Action

• Political theory offers a coherent hierarchy of political principles.
• It doesn’t just present a variety of views like a neutral shopkeeper, but:
• Guides choices
• Promotes values
• Acts as a tool for persuasion and political engagement
• Political theorists are not just thinkers—they are “preachers and propagandists,” helping society navigate moral and political choices.

Conclusion: Political Theory in the Modern Age

• Plamenatz strongly believed that political theory is neither fantasy, prejudice, nor just language analysis.
• Instead, it is an elaborate, rigorous, and essential intellectual pursuit—as necessary as any science.
• He viewed political theory as crucial for modern society, especially because:
• The behavioural revolution, which tried to sideline normative theory, failed.
• It was followed by post-behaviouralism, and later by John Rawls’ revival of normative political theory.
• In the 21st century, political theory is not an escape, but a serious commitment to exploring different ideas for the welfare of all.

3. Germino

1. Political Theory as an Experiential Science

• According to Germino, political theory is not merely an experimental science (based on testing and observation), but an experiential one.
• It is rooted in human experience and participation in political life, not in its ability to predict behavior or serve ideological purposes.
• It examines the fundamental principles of political order through the lens of human experience and understanding, rather than through empirical tests.

2. A Critical and Philosophical Perspective on Society

• Political theory allows individuals to transcend immediate practical concerns and critically reflect on human social existence.
• It encourages a broader and deeper understanding of society, rather than just responding to day-to-day political events or issues.
• This critical viewpoint enables theorists to explore normative questions—such as what is right, just, or ideal in political life.

3. The Role of Political Theory in Political Science

• Germino argues that political theory is the foundation of political science.
• It provides the core ideas, concepts, and analytical tools used in political science for:
• Analysis
• Description
• Explanation
• Criticism
• Political theory and political science are deeply connected—no political science can exist without political theory.

4. Political Theory as Both Process and Product

• Just like general theory, political theory has a dual meaning:
1. The process of theorizing (actively thinking and questioning).
2. The product of that thinking (written theories and frameworks).
• Therefore, political theory can rightly be seen as both the intellectual activity and the body of knowledge that shapes political understanding.

4. Ernest Barker

1. Political Science as the “Architectonic” or Master Science

• Ernest Barker, an English political thinker, referred to political science as architectonic, meaning it is the foundational or master discipline from which other practical sciences emerge.
• He argued that:
• The State is central to any ordered society.
• Political science is concerned with the State, its functioning, structure, and influence.
• Political Science is a master-science, “architerctonic” in its character, from which all other practical sciences take their cue’.
• It is interdisciplinary, overlapping with other subjects like:
• Economics
• Sociology
• Psychology
• Anthropology
• Law and Justice
• Communication Studies
• Because politics influences every aspect of human life, it becomes a master science — from what we can do, say, eat, or where we can live, all are influenced by political decisions.

2. Political Science as a Broad and Integrative Discipline

• Barker emphasized the broad scope of political science, which includes:
• Comparative Politics
• International Relations
• Political Philosophy
• Public Law and Governance
• It examines how power is exercised in group settings, and how institutions, rules, and processes help regulate cooperation and conflict.
• Since these institutions shape our collective life, political science is a key to understanding our society and global interactions.

3. Importance of Political Science in Modern Society

• Barker believed that political science is not just academic — it is practical and essential in today’s complex, globalized world.
• It helps analyze and influence:
• Public decisions (like health care, education, taxation)
• Human rights and environmental policies
• Legal systems and bureaucracies
• Economic sentiments and international diplomacy
• In essence, political science offers the tools to critically understand and influence the world we live in.

4. Purpose: Critical Thinking and Decision-Making

• Political science is more than a study of politics — it is a way to learn critical thinking and analytical skills.
• It helps individuals:
• Evaluate political ideas and systems
• Understand the logic behind public policies
• Become informed and responsible citizens
• Barker saw it as a tool to create more effective and ethical political choices.

Conclusion

According to Ernest Barker, political science is the art and science of understanding power, governance, and public life.

In today’s global world, it is essential for dealing with challenges related to law, environment, economy, bureaucracy, and human rights.

It equips us to think critically, act wisely, and engage effectively with society and the state.

5. Modern Thinkers

David Held

• Political theory is a network of concepts and assumptions about: Government, State, Society, Human political capabilities

W.C. Coker

• Political theory involves evaluating political forms not just by their immediate outcomes but in light of human desires and values.

Andrew Hacker

• It is both a search for good political principles and an exploration of political reality.

George Catlin

• Political theory includes both political science and philosophy.
• Science = control and mechanics of politics
• Philosophy = questions of value and ideals, like “What is a good society?”

Norman Barry

• Political theory is an eclectic subject with no fixed method.
• Draws from multiple disciplines and reflects on the meaning and coherence of the political.

Nature of Political Theory

1. Political Theory is Normative in Nature

• It deals with what ought to be rather than just what is.
• Concerned with justice, rights, liberty, equality, and the ideal political order.
• Leo Strauss: Political theory is essentially a normative and philosophical inquiry into the best political life.

2. Political Theory is Empirical and Scientific

• It also analyzes observable political behavior and institutions using empirical methods.
• David Easton: Emphasized political theory as a systematic explanation of political behavior using scientific tools.

3. Political Theory is Both Descriptive and Prescriptive

• It describes political realities and also prescribes ideal solutions.
• Sabine: Political theory includes factual, causal, and valuational aspects.

4. Political Theory is Philosophical

• Rooted in philosophical reflection on political life, ethics, and human nature.
• Plato and Aristotle: Used philosophy to propose ideas about justice, citizenship, and the ideal state.

5. Political Theory is Historical

• Evolves through historical contexts and responds to specific political challenges.
• Quentin Skinner and Sabine: Emphasized that political theory is best understood in its historical context.

6. Political Theory is Interpretative

• It involves interpretation of concepts, ideologies, and texts.
• Hannah Arendt: Believed that understanding political phenomena requires interpreting human action, speech, and plurality.

7. Political Theory is Critical

• It critiques existing power structures, ideologies, and political injustices.
• Herbert Marcuse (Critical School): Political theory must challenge systems of domination and promote emancipation.

8. Political Theory is Contextual and Situated

• Ideas must be understood in their linguistic, social, and political context.
• Quentin Skinner: Political texts cannot be interpreted in isolation; they are context-bound and purpose-driven.

Characteristics of Political Theory

1. Political Theory as an Intellectual and Individual Effort

• Political theory is primarily the intellectual creation of an individual.
• It reflects the personal understanding of political reality, especially regarding the State.
• Thinkers attempt to explain political truths as they perceive or experience them.
• Classic examples include:
• Plato’s Republic
• Aristotle’s Politics
• John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice

2. Understanding the Individual, Society, and History

• Political theory tries to analyze the nature of the individual and society:
• How is society formed?
• How does it function?
• What are its key components?
• What causes conflict within it, and how can these be resolved?
• It offers a historical and social understanding of human organization and coexistence.

3. Subject-Specific and Multidisciplinary Nature

• Political theory is based on specific subjects or perspectives, depending on the investigator’s background.
• The theorist could be a philosopher, economist, historian, religious leader, or socialist, and this shapes the theory.
• Hence, political theories vary based on the disciplinary lens used to analyze political realities.

4. Dual Purpose: Explanation and Social Change

• Political theory serves a dual role:
• It explains political reality.
• It suggests ways to bring about social change and guide historical progress.
• As Laski states:

“The work of political theory is not only to describe the facts but also to finalize what should be.”

• Therefore, political theory becomes a tool for transformation, not just analysis:
• It provides resources for action, revolution, reform, and social improvement.
• It helps understand society and find ways to correct its flaws.

5. Political Theory as a Reflection of Ideology

• Political theory inherently includes ideology.
• Ideology means a structured set of beliefs, values, and ideas that influence people and societies.
• Every political theory, from Plato to the present, reflects some ideological orientation.
• It highlights ideal political values, institutions, and behaviors accepted by a society.
• Examples of dominant ideologies in different regions:
• Liberalism in Western Europe and the USA.
• Marxism in the USSR and China.
• Each ideology often claims to represent the ultimate truth, leading to ideological conflict, which becomes a key feature of political theory.

Need for Political Theory

1. Political Theory as the History of Political Thought

• Scholars like George Sabine argue that political theory and political history are deeply interconnected.
• However, not all history is political theory, and not all political theory is simply history. Political theory without historical grounding is like a building without a foundation.
• According to Wolin (1960), the history of political theory reflects both continuity and innovation.
• It is important because:
• It explains the context (time, place, and circumstances) in which political ideas evolve.
• It links facts (factual-historical), causes (causal), and values (valuational), as emphasized by Sabine.
• Political theory preserves and explains timeless concepts like:
• Justice, Liberty, Equality, Obligation — all shaped over time and still relevant.
• Studying history allows us to trace the evolution of ideas and understand the various interpretations and adaptations of core political concepts.

2. Analytical Approach in Politics

1. Meaning

• The analytical approach in political science involves a logical, systematic, and value-based exploration of political life.
• It goes beyond facts to ask normative questions like:
• What should governments be doing?
• What is the right thing to do politically?
• It aims not just to understand what is, but also to reflect on what ought to be.
• “The individual is a political animal.” — Aristotle.
• This reflects the primacy and pervasiveness of politics in human life. Politics is not only unavoidable but also the highest form of social activity.

2. Analytical Political Philosophy vs. Social Science

• Social science focuses on empirical facts — observing and studying human behavior and political institutions objectively.
• Analytical political philosophy, however, focuses on normative analysis — understanding values, principles, and what should ideally be done.

Aspect	Social Science	Analytical Political Philosophy
Focus	Empirical facts	Normative questions (values, ideals)
Approach	Descriptive	Prescriptive and evaluative
Example	How does democracy function?	Should democracy be the ideal form of govt?

Analytical political philosophy lies in the same broad category as science, as it uses logic, reason, and consistency, but applies them to normative and conceptual questions.

3. Why Is the Analytical Approach Important in Politics?

• Politics represents collective public life — how people organize themselves and form rules for co-existence.
• Even simple political opinions or everyday beliefs involve deep value choices, such as:
• Are individuals equal?
• Is the state more important than the individual?
• How to justify state-sponsored violence?
• Is there a tension between freedom and equality?
• Can a minority dominate the majority or vice versa?

Answering such questions requires critical thinking, not just opinion — and that's where analytical political theory becomes essential.

• Our responses reflect not just facts but our ideological leanings — liberal, conservative, socialist, etc.
• Therefore, training in political theory enables citizens to answer such questions logically, speculatively, and critically.

4. Thinkers' Views on Analytical Political Theory

a. Different Emphases on Power

• Goodwin (1992): Emphasizes power as the central concern of political theory.
• Talcott Parsons: Downplays power, likening it to money in modern society—a tool, not the essence.

b. Normative Over Power-Based Approaches

• John Rawls and Robert Nozick: Do not emphasize power.
• Rawls focuses on a well-ordered society based on:
• Justice
• Stability
• Efficiency
• They discuss political principles, not who holds or wields power.

c. Sabine’s Perspective

• Sabine defines political theory as: "Man’s attempt to understand and solve the problems of group life and organization."
• It is a disciplined investigation that seeks not just to describe political practices, but to understand their meaning and sometimes alter them by reinterpreting what they ought to mean.

3. Clarity of Political Concepts

Understanding Key Political Terms

• Political theory helps clarify important political concepts like:
• Freedom
• Equality
• Democracy
• Justice
• Rights
• These concepts are commonly used in everyday language and academic debates, but often without clear understanding. Political theory gives them precise meaning and historical context.

Importance of Concepts in Political Understanding

• Concepts are essential both as:
• Means – they help us understand and analyze political realities.
• Ends – they shape how we think about justice, rights, state, etc.
• A scientific approach to political theory uses these concepts to enable intersubjective, rational discussion.

Thinkers’ Views on Conceptual Clarity

• Weldon (1953) emphasized examining concepts even in ordinary, pre-theoretical language.
• Different ideologies use concepts differently:
• Liberals: Freedom means individual choice and absence of restraints.
• Socialists: Freedom is meaningful only with equality.
• Liberals see the state as a welfare tool, while socialists see it as a tool of oppression and privilege.
• Conclusion: Conceptual analysis is not neutral. It involves:
• Exploring various meanings.
• Justifying why a particular meaning (e.g., capability-based justice) is chosen over another (e.g., procedural justice).

4. Structuring and Explaining Political Processes

Political Theory as Model-Building

• Especially in the United States, political theory is seen as formal modeling of political behavior (like in economics).
• These models serve two purposes:
• Explanatory – they reveal how political processes operate.
• Normative – they show the outcomes of following specific rules or policies.

Key Thinkers and Theories

• Anthony Downs:
• Voters seek maximum benefit.
• Political parties behave like teams optimizing their chance to win.
• Kenneth Arrow:
• His Impossibility Theorem shows how voting outcomes can become arbitrary if there are multiple options and the wrong procedure is used.
• Joseph Schumpeter:
• People care more about economic life than political life.
• Democracy becomes elitist and procedural rather than participatory.

5. Political Theory as a Branch of Political Science

Integration of Empirical and Normative Approaches

• Some modern scholars treat political theory as a subfield of political science focused on abstract theorizing.
• There's a shift towards empirical analysis, linking real-world observations with theory.
• However, purely empirical theory fails, because:
• Political analysis always involves interpretation of human motives and intentions.
• This inevitably brings in normative (value-based) questions.

6. Social Relevance and Practical Significance of Political Theory

Functions and Benefits of Political Theory

Political theory plays a vital role in understanding and shaping society by:

• Explaining the nature and objectives of the state and government.
• Connecting social and political realities to ideals and values.
• Making people aware of rights, duties, equality, justice, and property.
• Offering alternative frameworks to address issues like:
• Poverty
• Violence
• Corruption
• Casteism
• Helping bring about social change and reforms, even revolutions.

Decline of Political Theory

Introduction

In the mid-20th century, many scholars were quick to declare political theory as irrelevant or outdated.

Some described it as being in decline, while others went as far as to announce its death. One even remarked that political theory had been relegated to the "doghouse."

This negative perception largely stemmed from the fact that classical political theory was heavily based on value judgments, which could not be tested or verified through empirical methods.

David Easton's Concept of Decline of Political Theory

 

Easton’s Critique of Traditional Political Theory

• David Easton believed that political theory was in a state of decline.
• Criticism of normative political theory began with logical positivists in the 1930s, followed by behaviouralists.
• These critiques challenged the historical and value-based approach of traditional political theory.
• According to him, political theory had limited itself to historical study and the mere analysis of values and ideas, neglecting empirical and scientific methods.
• In his 1951 article, Easton wrote:
• “Political theory today is interested primarily in the history of ideas.”
• Traditional theorists (both classical and modern) focused on values, principles, and history, but ignored data-driven, theoretical analysis.
• Easton argued for a shift toward empirical science and a rejection of metaphysical speculation and pure historical interpretation.
• Blame on Historicism and Key Thinkers
• Easton blamed historicism for the decline of political theory.
• He specifically pointed out the works of: William Dunning, Charles H. McIlwain, George M. Sabine
• These thinkers, according to Easton, focused excessively on historical forms and ideas, which discouraged serious study of value theory.

Four Major Causes of Decline According to Easton

A. Historicism

• Political thinkers were overly influenced by historical events and failed to address present and future challenges.
• They lacked a positive and creative outlook to reconstruct society.
• Easton emphasized that both facts and values are necessary for a just and effective political theory.
• He categorized historicist thinkers into four types:
1. Institutionalists – Focused on structures but ignored how ideas shape present values.
2. Interactionalists – Reacted to historical events but lacked long-term vision.
3. Materialists – Studied cultural/historical conditions but ignored normative analysis.
4. Believers in Contemporary Values – Focused only on prevailing values, not facts or their evolution.

B. Moral Relativism

• Political theorists showed indifference and lacked commitment to universal truths.
• They accepted whatever ideas were prevalent, without critical evaluation or alternative theories.
• There was a detachment of political values from empirical research.
• Easton criticized this as intellectually lazy, as no effort was made to discover truth based on reason, rationality, and interdisciplinary dialogue.
• He advocated collaboration with sociology and psychology to build meaningful political theory.

C. Hyper-Factualism

• There was an excessive focus on factual data at the cost of theoretical development.
• Political scientists:
• Researched only what was easily measurable.
• Lacked theoretical imagination and broader purpose.
• Relied too much on public opinion, bureaucracy, and organizational machinery without addressing internal intellectual flaws.
• They collected facts without understanding how to interpret them meaningfully, leading to shallow research with no solid theoretical foundation.

D. Positivism

• In the 19th and 20th centuries, new ideologies began turning into rigid, narrow theories.
• According to Germino, this ideological rigidity and closed-mindedness contributed to the decline.
• Auguste Comte introduced a scientific approach to human society, giving three stages of knowledge:
1. Theological Stage – Supernatural beliefs dominate.
2. Metaphysical Stage – Critical thinking and questioning arise.
3. Positive (Scientific) Stage – Rationality, science, and logic replace superstition.
• Arnold explained that:

• Positivism promoted an intellectual movement.
• It separated values and facts too rigidly.
• He categorized positivists into:
1. Open-minded and balanced
2. Extreme behaviourists (Hyberistic)
3. Hyper-factualists
4. Exological positivists (those unable to separate facts and values)

Easton’s Vision for Reviving Political Theory

• Easton advocated for:
• A scientific, empirical foundation for political theory.
• Inclusion of both facts and values for a complete understanding.
• Critical thinking over blind acceptance of prevailing ideas.
• Interdisciplinary cooperation (e.g., with psychology and sociology).
• He emphasized that political theory must be relevant, reformative, and rational, not just historical or speculative.

Conclusion

David Easton highlighted how political theory lost relevance by becoming either too historical, too value-driven, or too fact-dependent without balance.

He called for a reconstruction of political theory — one that uses empirical methods, rational values, and interdisciplinary approaches to address real-world problems.

Decline of Political Theory by Dante Germino and Cobban

1. Dante Germino: Ideological Reductionism and the Decline

• Dante Germino, in his work Beyond Ideology: The Revival of Political Theory, identifies the rise of ideology as a major cause of the decline of political theory.
• He particularly criticizes Marxism, calling it:
• A form of ideological reductionism—oversimplifying complex political reality into rigid ideological frameworks.
• Propagandist in nature, aimed at achieving a political goal—the emancipation of the working class through class struggle and revolution.
• Germino argues that while Marx’s ideas contribute to political science, they do not enrich political theory meaningfully because:
• They are goal-driven rather than truth-seeking.
• They lack neutrality, being more about activism than analysis.

2. Alfred Cobban

A. Rise of the State and Bureaucracy

• Alfred Cobban draws parallels between the modern world and the Roman Empire, warning of:
• The expansion of state power
• The growth of bureaucracy
• Large military establishments
• He argues that both Communist and Western societies have contributed to the decline:
• In the Communist world, centralization of power and party machinery limited genuine political thinking.
• In the Western world, democracy failed to reform itself, becoming less of a "living tool" for the people.

B. Loss of Moral Values and Direction in Political Thought

• Cobban is also concerned with how politics has become morally detached:
• The state is now viewed purely as a power machine, not as a vehicle for justice or moral good.
• This abstract, amoral view keeps ethical concerns out of political discussion.
• He further notes the internal decay of political theory:
• Earlier thinkers were deeply committed and morally passionate about reforming society.
• In contrast, modern political thought lacks that creative purpose and has become overly scientific and historical in approach, losing its normative core.

Conclusion

The decline of political theory, according to Germino and Cobban, is due to both external pressures (ideological dominance, state expansion, moral decay) and internal weaknesses (loss of passion, over-reliance on history, and shift to scientific methods).

What was once a deeply normative and reform-oriented discipline has become, in many ways, directionless and detached from real-world ethical and political challenges.

The Scientific Turn and Criticism of Political Theory

• By the 1950s, political theory was even described as a “dead discipline” due to:
• The emergence of empiricism and scientific methods in political science.
• The rise of behaviouralism, which emphasized data, observation, and objectivity, sidelining normative questions.
• Empirical thinkers criticized political theory for:
• Being based too heavily on historical and abstract ideas.
• Lacking the practical and observable foundation needed in modern political analysis.

Resurgence of Political Theory

Introduction: Political Theory—A Living Tradition

• Although political theory has often been criticized for losing its classical direction, it continues to evolve and remain relevant.
• The “great tradition” of classical thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, and Locke may appear to have ended, but that is not the case.
• Contemporary debates and issues show that political theory is expanding in scope and adjusting to modern needs.
• It continues to be both a subject of scholarly discussion and a source of reflection on political life.

Evolving Nature and Expanding Scope

• Political theory today deals with more than just classical concerns—it has shifted its focus to include:
• Feminism
• Opportunism
• Cynicism
• Existentialism
• Environmentalism
• Post-behavioralism
• Fundamentalism
• Post-modernism
• Methodological revolutions
• This reflects the changing character of political theory, from only philosophical or institutional questions to more applied and contemporary issues.
• There's an increasing emphasis on real-world public policy matters such as:
• Welfare
• Racial and gender discrimination
• Social justice and equality

Transition From Classical to Contextual Approach

• Political theory has flourished in the last two decades, but has also become more fragmented.
• The focus has shifted from universal philosophical ideas to more historical and contextual analysis:
• Scholars now locate classical texts in their specific political and social contexts.
• Despite this shift, political theory still helps in explaining norms, practices, and institutions that guide political action and behaviour.

Post–Second World War: The Turning Point

• The 1950s marked a new phase in the development of political theory:
• WWII acted as a dividing line between traditional and modern political theory.
• Many European scholars migrated to the U.S., bringing fresh perspectives and founding new methods of political inquiry.
• This led to the “resurgence” or revival of normative (value-based) political theory, especially in the United States.

Institutional Support for the Revival

• The American Political Science Association and the Rockefeller Foundation were central in this revival.
• American universities and research institutions became the hubs for theoretical innovation.
• Scholars conducted empirical and normative studies, contributing to a more vibrant political theory landscape.

Key Thinkers of the Resurgence

• The resurgence of political theory is visible in the works of several 20th-century political philosophers, including: Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Hannah Arendt, Michael Oakeshott, Bertrand de Jouvenel, Sheldon Wolin, John Rawls
• These thinkers reintroduced moral, ethical, and philosophical questions into political theory and helped revive interest in normative analysis.

Leo Strauss Views on the Resurgence of Political Theory

• Leo Strauss was a German-born American political philosopher and classicist, known for his expertise in classical political theory.
• He preferred the term “political philosophy” over “political theory”, believing it represents a distinctive and essential form of political thinking.
• Unlike some who claim political theory is in decline, Strauss saw political philosophy as alive and necessary, especially within the context of liberal democracy.

Importance of Classical/Normative Political Philosophy

• Strauss emphasized the relevance of traditional (normative) political theory to modern-day problems.
• He believed that political science and political philosophy are identical, aligning with Aristotle’s approach.
• Like Aristotle, Strauss considered political activity to be deeply ethical, grounded in justice, prudence, and virtuous action.
• Strauss revived the classical essence of political theory by reasserting the value of ancient political ideas in understanding human society today.

The Ideal Society: Polis vs. Modern Nation

• According to Strauss, classical political thought sees the most natural and fulfilling human society not as large and impersonal (like modern nations), but as small and community-centered—the “polis” or city.
• In such a close-knit city-state, citizens can participate directly in public life, not only as rulers but as engaged and ethically responsible citizens.
• This setting provides a genuine opportunity for individuals to grow spiritually and politically by actively shaping their collective future.

Critique of Modern Thought: Idealism, Realism, and Secularism

• Strauss described the core of modern political thought (the “modern project”) as a secular effort to:
• Realize ideals in actual reality,
• Prove that rationality and reality coincide, and
• Eliminate the transcendent or spiritual dimension of political life.
• He argued that modern idealism and realism are interdependent, but both reject the traditional spiritual and ethical hierarchies of classical philosophy.
• Modern thought, for Strauss, ignores the inner development of the soul and spiritual needs that were central to classical political philosophy.

Criticism of Behaviorism and Positivism

• Strauss strongly rejected behaviorism, a trend in modern political science that focuses only on observable behavior and empirical methods.
• He saw behaviorism as:
• Separating political philosophy from political science, and
• Incapable of addressing moral questions such as what is right or wrong.
• He believed behaviorism and positivism are both dangerous, especially in the face of totalitarian ideologies, as they fail to offer moral clarity or guiding principles.

Conclusion

• For Strauss, political theory (or philosophy) is inseparable from political practice.
• He insisted that political science must be rooted in philosophical inquiry, especially in normative, ethical, and spiritual dimensions.
• His work signifies a resurgence of classical political theory, aiming to restore depth, morality, and purpose to the study of politics.

Isaiah Berlin on the Resurgence of Political Theory

Political Theory Is Still Alive

• In his essay “Does Political Theory Exist?”, Isaiah Berlin strongly argued that political theory is not dead, nor is it declining.
• He affirmed that political theory—even in its philosophical form—will not vanish from the earth, because it addresses timeless human concerns.

Critique of Empiricism

• Berlin blamed radical empiricists for the apparent decline of political theory.
• These empiricists displaced the classical tradition, sidelining deep normative questions in favor of data and observation.

Enduring Relevance

• Political theory arises from mankind’s constant quest to understand political authority and obligation.
• Though some ideas within political theory may lose relevance, the discipline itself remains essential.
• Human civilization has always engaged with questions of power, authority, and legitimacy—and political theory reflects that enduring struggle.

John Rawls on the Resurgence of Political Theory

A Turning Point: A Theory of Justice (1971)

• John Rawls sparked a major revival of political theory with his work “A Theory of Justice”.
• This book challenged the empirical and behaviorist models (like those of David Easton), by reintroducing normative thinking—concerned with what ought to be.

Foundation in Classical Thought

• Rawls’s theory of justice was rooted in:
• Locke’s Social Contract theory (emphasis on consent and liberty),
• Kant’s theory of individualism and moral autonomy.
• He brought moral and ethical dimensions back into liberal political philosophy.

Justice as the First Virtue

• According to Rawls, justice is the primary virtue of social institutions, just as truth is the primary virtue of systems of thought.
• His theory seeks a fair system of cooperation in a liberal democratic society—ensuring equal liberties, fair opportunities, equitable distribution of wealth, and respect for all.

Critique of Empiricism

• Rawls argued that empirical political theories cannot explain all aspects of political life, especially values and justice.
• Empiricism fails to produce a complete or morally meaningful theory of politics.

Normative Theory & Scientific Validity

• He saw no conflict between normative theory (moral theory) and scientific reasoning.
• Rawls believed that moral knowledge can be as rational and structured as scientific knowledge—the two can be isomorphic, or structurally similar.

Common Themes in Berlin and Rawls

Theme	Isaiah Berlin	John Rawls
Critique of Empiricism	Blamed radical empiricists for marginalizing political theory	Criticized empiricism for ignoring values and justice
Revival of Normative Theory	Defended political theory as rooted in moral obligation	Reasserted the need for normative foundations in politics
Lasting Importance of Political Philosophy	Believed political theory is timeless and will not disappear	Believed political theory must address fairness and justice
Classical Influences	Emphasized tradition and historical depth	Drew from Locke, Kant, and social contract theory
Engagement with Modern Challenges	Argued that modern society still needs political theory	Sought a model of justice suited to modern liberal democracies

Conclusion

The resurgence of political theory is not merely a return to old traditions, but a dynamic transformation. It now encompasses new issues, methods, and philosophies, reflecting the complexities of modern society.

Political theory continues to be essential for understanding, analyzing, and guiding political practices, public policies, and human values in both local and global contexts.

Political Crisis and the Remedies to Overcome It

Nature of the Political Crisis in the 20th Century

• In the mid-20th century, political theory experienced a deep crisis.
• The crisis mainly involved the decline of political theory into historicism, where:
• Political scientists stopped evaluating moral values critically.
• Instead, they simply studied the origins, development, and social impact of values without questioning their ethical validity.
• History was used not to challenge, but to justify existing values.
• This led to a loss of the constructive and normative approach that once guided political theory.
• Political theorists began to conform to the dominant moral views of their time, abandoning the search for deeper principles or ideals.

Initial Remedies: Scientific and Historical Approaches

• By the 1930s, a shift occurred where political theory began using the history of ideas to:
• Defend liberal democracy against totalitarian ideologies like fascism, Nazism, and communism.
• Thinkers like Harold Lasswell and Charles Merriam developed a scientific political theory:
• The goal was to understand and control human behavior using empirical and behavioral methods.
• This new approach focused on describing reality, not prescribing ideals.
• This marked a shift from normative political theory to descriptive and behavioral science.

Return to Classical Political Theory (Normative Revival)

Some thinkers opposed the purely scientific or ideological turns in political theory and sought to revive its classical roots:

a. Leo Strauss

• Criticized modern political science for reducing political theory to ideology or historical context.
• Emphasized the search for universal truths and moral principles behind political order.
• Argued that political theory should not only reflect socio-economic interests but should try to discover the “right order” in society.
• Believed that classical thinkers like Aristotle offered a more profound and impartial method of political understanding.
• Strauss blamed modern political science (e.g., Easton’s behavioralism) for contributing to the Western political crisis by ignoring normative values.

b. Eric Voegelin

• Stated that political science and political theory are inseparable.
• Political theory is not just ideology, utopia, or scientific method.
• It is an experiential science of the “right order” within both individuals and society.
• Political theory must critically and empirically examine the concept of order to remain relevant.

c. Other Traditional Thinkers

• Thinkers like Hannah Arendt, Theodore Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Leo Strauss continued to uphold traditional political theory.
• They preserved the belief that political theory should engage with ethics, justice, freedom, and the human condition, beyond mere data and behavior.

Conclusion

The political crisis of the 20th century was marked by the decline of normative political theory into historicism and behavioralism, where values were studied but not judged.

Remedies came from two directions:

• The scientific approach, aiming to describe and control behavior.
• The classical revival, led by Strauss and Voegelin, advocating a return to ethics, universal values, and the pursuit of the right order in society.

In today’s context, the balance between normative ideals and empirical analysis remains crucial for a healthy and meaningful political science.

Importance of Political Theory

1. Understanding Political Life and Purpose of Government

• Political theory helps us understand the goals and functions of government.
• It focuses on "why" political systems exist—not just how they work.
• As John Plamenatz said, political theory is about the “purposes of government”, not just its functioning.

2. Normative Evaluation – Judging Right and Wrong

• Political theory is a normative discipline, meaning it helps us evaluate political values like justice, equality, liberty, and rights.
• It’s not about collecting data but about asking:
• What should a just society look like?
• What are good laws or ethical governments?
• It’s closely linked to moral and ethical philosophy.

3. Clarifying Political Concepts and Language

• It clarifies and defines key political terms like state, liberty, power, democracy, authority, etc.
• Plamenatz emphasized that political theory analyzes and justifies the vocabulary of politics, making our political debates clearer and more meaningful.

4. Influencing Society and Political Behavior

• Political theories shape how people see themselves and their society.
• They provide ideological frameworks (like liberalism, socialism, Marxism) that influence citizens, laws, and political behavior.
• These ideas have real-world impact—guiding revolutions, reforms, and constitutions.

5. Guiding Political Action and Decision-Making

• Political theory creates a system of principles to help policymakers, leaders, and citizens make informed decisions.
• It doesn't just list options—it gives guidance on what is ideal or just.
• According to Plamenatz, political theorists are “preachers and propagandists”, not just neutral observers.

6. Connecting with Other Disciplines

• As Ernest Barker highlighted, political science (and theory) is interdisciplinary.
• It overlaps with economics, sociology, psychology, law, ethics, etc.
• Understanding politics helps us understand every other aspect of social life—from education and economy to justice and environment.

7. Political Theory and Social Change

• Political theory is not just about understanding; it’s about transforming society.
• It provides tools to criticize injustice, imagine alternatives, and propose reforms.
• Laski and other theorists saw it as a vehicle for positive change in society.

8. Relevance in the Modern World

• In today’s world of globalization, climate crisis, social inequality, and democratic challenges, political theory helps us:
• Navigate complex issues
• Defend human rights
• Promote peace, cooperation, and justice
• It is an essential guide for responsible citizenship and leadership.

Political theory is a dynamic and essential discipline that combines scientific analysis with philosophical reflection. It is not merely abstract speculation—it is a serious intellectual pursuit that seeks to understand, evaluate, and improve the political life of human beings.

Historically, from Plato’s quest for truth to Aristotle’s ethical grounding of politics, political theory has evolved alongside society, responding to the urgent issues of each era—whether justice, power, liberty, or governance. Even as empirical and behavioral approaches once questioned its relevance, political theory reasserted itself through normative frameworks like Rawls’ A Theory of Justice, reaffirming its place in the study of politics.

Today, political theory plays a crucial role in addressing contemporary global challenges such as:

• Legal and bureaucratic complexity
• Environmental degradation
• Economic inequality
• Human rights violations

It allows us to:

• Think critically about political institutions and ideas
• Engage ethically with power and authority
• Act effectively to build a more just and humane society

Moreover, political theory is shaped by its cultural, historical, and epistemological context. Different traditions (Western, Marxist, feminist, postcolonial, etc.) reflect unique methods and goals, enriching the global conversation about justice, power, and human dignity.

In essence, political theory is the soul of political science—it connects facts with values, power with justice, and thought with action. In an increasingly complex and interconnected world, the need for political theory is greater than ever.